Cicero, Marcus Tullius

sis e-ro, Marcus Tullius (106-43 B. C.), the foremost orator of Rome. He was born in Arpinum, sixty miles southwest of Rome, January 3, 106 B. C. His father, a prosperous knight, removed to Rome to give his sons an education. Cicero studied grammar, rhetoric, elocution, and history under the best instructors to be found in the city. Then, as now, the law was regarded as an avenue to political life. Cicero attached himself to a prominent jurist named Scaevola, said "to be the most eloquent of those skilled in law; the most skilled in law of the eloquent." At the age of seventeen he served in the army. Every gentleman's son was expected to acquire some knowledge of military science. Entering upon the practice of law, Cicero won a reputation by his eloquent pleas in the courts. It was necessary to remain obscure or to take sides in politics. Cicero espoused at first the cause of the democracy, as opposed to the aristocratic party. Not satisfied with removing opponents from office, party feeling ran so high that whenever a new party came into power it considered itself unsafe until it had put a few thousand of the opposing party to death.

During the triumphs of the aristocrats under Sulla, Cicero thought it wise to go abroad and improve his mind by study and travel. On the death of Sulla he deemed it safe to return to Rome. In the year 76 he was elected to the quaestorship, and was assigned the governorship of Sicily. Little is known of his experience in this capacity, beyond the fact that he was considered honest and capable and was held in esteem by the inhabitants of this island. Service in this position entitled him to a life membership in the Senate.

Cicero now set his eye on the consulship, a position corresponding in a rude way to that of our mayor, or possibly the president of a republic. To guard the interests of the people, two consuls were elected to serve conjointly. Cicero served first as aedile, a sort of police commissioner, and then as a praetor, corresponding in a general way to a judge-both with a view to election as consul, to which honor he succeeded in the year 63 B. C. This made him the head of the general executive and administrative business of the state. Wherever he went he was preceded by attendants carrying bundles of rods as symbols of his authority. During his consulship a bankrupt rival for the position, named Catiline, organized an infamous conspiracy to overthrow the government. Cicero by his watchfulness kept track of Catiline's movements and caused him and several of his leaders to be arrested. Cicero obtained a vote of the senate authorizing him to secure the safety of the commonwealth. This vote he interpreted by causing his prisoners to be put to death in a dungeon. This execution, though done under authority, was contrary to an act providing that no citizen of Rome should be executed judicially without the right of appeal to the people in a public meeting.

In 58 B. C. a political opponent worked upon the people to secure the passage of a bill depriving Cicero of the privilege of fire and water within a radius of 400 miles from Rome. The mob pelted Cicero with mud as he passed along the streets. He withdrew to Thessalonica. His beautiful house on the Palatine Hill and a country place in the suburbs were confiscated and plundered. In 57 B. C. he was brought back to Rome by Pompey, "borne on the shoulders of all Italy," amid general rejoicing.

In 53 B. C. he was placed on the board of augurs, a sacred college of fifteen members entrusted with the duty of seeking and interpreting the omens of the gods. They also held festivals, consecrated temples, and performed other religious rites. In Spectator, No. 505, we find the following comment, "Can anything be more surprising than to consider Cicero, who made the greatest figure in the Senate of the Roman commonwealth, and at the same time outshines all the philosophers of antiquity, as busying himself in the college of augurs and observing with religious attention after what manner the chickens pecked the several grains of corn which were thrown to them?" In reality the augurs had considerable political power. If they feared, for instance, that an election might be adverse, they could, and not infrequently did, announce that the omens-the auspices of the gods-were not favorable for an election on that day. Other minor positions were held by Cicero. He rejoiced in the death of Caesar at the hands of conspirators, thinking that the republic might be restored.

The party of Mark Antony, however, gained the ascendency and condemned Cicero to death, 43 B. C. He might have saved his life by flying from Italy, but could not prevail upon himself to go farther than his country villa. Here hired assassins found him. His slaves tried to hurry him away to a place of concealment in a covered litter, but were overtaken. Cicero put his head out of the litter and met his fate. His head and his hands were cut off and taken to Rome where they were subjected to insult by Antony and nailed to the Rostra, the scene of many an oratorical triumph.

As a statesman Cicero was not practical. He tried to restore the days of the old republic, no longer possible. He was egotistical, but patriotic; theoretical, but sincere; vain, but not selfish. A far more favorable impression of his daily life may be obtained from his letters than from the orations generally read in school. From these letters we may see that he was kindhearted, generous, and affectionate. The sources of his wealth are not known, but he was famous for fine country villas, artistic furniture, a well stored library, and beautiful pieces of painting and statuary. As an orator and master of Roman prose his name stands first. Some fifty-seven of his speeches, a score of fragments, and the titles of thirty others are still extant. They were written on long rolls of parchment, no doubt. None of the originals are known. Copies of the Catilinian orations are numerous. The very oldest, that in the famous library at Milan, was made a thousand years after Cicero's death.