Literature

Grecian. The literature of Greece has had doubtless a greater and more far-reaching--a more pervasive--influence than that of any other nation. Little more than a characterization of the various periods is attempted in this article. The development of various forms of literature in Greece is discussed under the headings, EPIC, DRAMA, TRAGEDY, COMEDY, etc., and separate articles are given to all important literary characters. The history of ancient Greek literature is divided into three periods:

I. From the earliest times to the age of Herodotus (484 B. C.). This period is marked by ballad poetry and the development of the epic, and by the greatest examples of lyric poetry and by the beginnings of philosophy. The earliest lyrics are the song of Linus, sung at the grapepicking, and the song of Bormus, sung at the corncutting. Both are songs of mourning for beautiful youths cut down by untimely death and are evidently symbolic. Sappho's songs, including the lament for Adonis; the Paeans, songs to Apollo; the ballads of the Rhapsodes; the poems of Homer and Hesiod; and, in the latter part of the period, the elegies of Solon and Simonides, and the varied writings of Pindar. The poems of Anacreon, Arion, and Ibycus belong here. The chief exponents of philosophy are the Seven Sages. Anaxagoras and Pythagoras are other names of importance. The fables of Aesop are perhaps the most important prose of this time.

II. The second period embraces the time when Athens was at the height of her glory; it is the most brilliant period of Greek literature. The development of history, the drama, and of oratory mark this epoch, which closes with the downfall of Athens. Herodotus is the first and most important writer of history. Thucydides is also a noted historian. In dramatic poetry we find three great names,-Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. Aristophanes, writer of comedy, should be mentioned. Public speaking was cultivated at Athens, especially during the age of Pericles, who was himself an orator, although his speeches have not been preserved. Other important names in the line of oratory and philosophy are Demosthenes, Aeschines. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

III. The third period in Greek literature is the period of decline. It covers the time from the death of Alexander the Great, 323 B. C., to the fall of Constantinople. The seat of learning was no longer at Athens, but at Alexandria, and gradually both language and literature declined. The bucolic poets are the most important writers of this period. Theocritus is first among them. Alexandria produced many scholars and scientific discoverers. We may also mention the famous Alexandrian Library of 700,000 volumes in various languages, but especially in Greek. Philosophy still flourished at Athens. After Greece came under Roman rule many Greek writers published their works in Rome and Roman writers took the ancient Greeks as their models.

After the fall of Constantinople Greek literature came to a standstill so far as productiveness was concerned. The Greeks, however, were prominent in helping to spread a knowledge of their language through Europe. The eighteenth century witnessed a revival of enthusiasm for learning and literature. It is said that at present no nation produces so much literature in proportion to its numbers as does Greece. Prose of every kind is produced, many women being particularly successful in this line. In poetry, three names are promiment: that of Panagitos Santsos in lyric poetry, of Alexander Santsos in satire, and of Alexander Rangabe, who has produced both poetry and prose of great excellence.