Literature

Russian. The earliest Russian writers were ecclesiastics, the most noted of whom is the monk, Nestor. He produced the first Russian chronicle in the twelfth century. At this time traditions and folk-lore, some specimens of which have been preserved, existed to quite an extent. The Mongol invasion put a check upon national life and literature, the books of the church were revised by Nihon, and numerous sects sprang up through the country. Shortly foreign influences began to be felt, many scholars and writers establishing themselves in Moscow. Many translations of foreign works were made, and lyric poetry and satire appeared in the Russian tongue. Lomonosoff (1712-65) is called the father of Russian literature. His influence in establishing the language, in laying down principles of grammar, and in giving form to the national poetry was of the highest importance. Sumarakoff (1718-99) produced dramas and established the Busy Bee, the earliest periodical. Toward the end of the eighteenth century French influence, which had been paramount, began to give way to that of Germany and England. Novels of middle class life became popular. Karamsin was a writer of novels and also produced a History of Russia, of important influence in the development of a pure and simple prose style. Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837) is the greatest of Russian poets. Influenced by foreign poets, he was still altogether Russian and, with a remarkable mastery of form, attained in poetry an excellence which makes his work the model of Russian poets. Since 1825 a vast number of writers have appeared of sufficient importance to give Russian literature a position in the front ranks of European national literature. Gogol represents naturalism in fiction. Turgenyeff and Tolstoi are great names of the present period. See Tolstoi; Russia