Literature

Chinese. The literature of China is the most voluminous and probably the most important of the literatures of Asia. It is also one of the oldest. In order to understand its characteristics, we must consider the vehicle of expression--the language. The Chinese language is monosyllabic and uninflectional. The position of a word in a sentence is all important. A noun changed to a different position may become a verb, or it may be altogether meaningless. With a language so incapable of variation, a literature can not be produced which possesses the qualities we look for and admire in literary works. Elegance, variety, beauty of imagery--these must all be lacking. A monotonous and wearisome language must give rise to a forced and formal literature lacking in originality and interesting in its subject matter only. Moreover, a conservative people like the Chinese, profoundly reverencing all that is old and formal, and hating innovation, must leave the impress of its own character upon its literature. In spite of these facts the Chinese are a literary and, we may say, a reading people. The only road to positions of honor is by way of competitive examinations open to all. This has tended to the diffusion of learning, and every professional man is able to read the books concerning his own profession at least.

The beginning of literature in China cannot be traced. There are allusions in many early books to earlier works which have been lost or destroyed. The canonical books or classics are the most important, not on account of their literary merit, but because of the immense influence they have exerted upon the people. There are nine of these books, classified usually as the Five Classics and the Four Books.

1. BOOK OF CHANGES OR TRANSFORMATIONS. This work is highly reverenced by the Chinese, but little understood. It dates from 1150 B. C. It consists of sixty-four essays, in which a system of philosophy is mystically set forth in diagrams and linear figures. It is used by hundreds of fortune tellers and soothsayers. Confucius endeavored with indifferent success to elucidate this book. 2. THE BOOK OF HISTORY consists of the records of dynasties from the twenty-fourth century B. C. to 721 B. C. They were compiled by Confucius from records which he found at the court of Chow. Mr. Wells Williams says that this book is the "foundation of the political system of the Chinese, of their history, and their religious rites,--the basis of their tactics, music, astronomy." 3. BOOK OF ODES. This book consists of songs and ballads. Some of them are so old that they belong to a time previous to any works of which we have knowledge. As in other countries, the first literature in China took the form of poetry. The empire was divided into a number of feudal states whose various princes met the king at stated intervals to receive orders. Ballads and songs were at these times presented to the sovereign. In the time of Confucius these songs numbered about 3,000. he selected some 300 of these and arranged them in the Book of Odes. 4. THE BOOK OF RITES. This has had an almost unlimited influence. Ceremony is most dear to the Chinese as individuals and as a race, and in the performance of every domestic duty, every social rite, every religious ceremony. 5. SPRING AND AUTUMN ANNALS. This is the only one of the classics which was actually written by Confucius. It consists of a long series of the briefest possible statements of facts and occurrences covering a period of 242 years. 6. THE FOUR BOOKS were written by the pupils and followers of Confucius. Mencius (371-288 B. C.), the sage's most noted disciple, was the author of one of them. His work is more original than that of Confucius himself. The teaching of the Four Books has been summed up in one sentence, "Walk in the trodden paths."

In 221 B. C. the emperor, Che-Hwang-tsi, ordered all books to be burned. In various ways copies of the classics were preserved. Portions of one of them were taken from the lips of a blind man who treasured them in his memory. The Book of History was found concealed in the wall of Confucius' house. Shortly after the death of this emperor paper was invented, and, about the close of the sixth century, the art of printing--nearly 900 years before it was known in Europe. Little printing was done for centuries, but gradually a literature grew up which, if not progressive, is at least voluminous. The catalog of the emperor's library consists of 122 volumes. Historical and geographical works abound and form the most interesting and valuable department of literature to all except the Chinese themselves. Encyclopedias and dictionaries are numerous and very complete.

Fiction, poetry, and the drama are all represented in Chinese literature. They are interesting as curiosities and as throwing light upon the customs and mode of thought of this people. From a literary point of view, they have little value. The present evidences of unrest in China and the opening up of the country to foreign influences must have its effect upon literature as upon all else connected with this strange, slow, conservative, and yet intelligent people.

See Confucius; Language; Chinese Empire