Lycanthropy
The transformation of a human being into an animal. The term is derived from the Greek words, lukos a wolf, and anthropos a man, but it is employed regarding a transformation into any animal shape. It is chiefly in these countries where wolves are numerous that we find such tales concerning them. (See Wer-wolf.) But in India, and some parts of Asia, the tiger takes the place of the wolf; in Russia and elsewhere the bear, and in Africa the leopard.
It is usually savage animals regarding which these beliefs are prevalent, but even harmless ones also figure in them. There is considerable confusion as to whether such transformations were voluntary, or involuntary, temporary or permanent. The man as transformed into the animal may be the very individual himself, or, on the other hand may be only his double, that is his spirit may enter the animal and his body remain unchanged. Magicians and witches were credited with the power of transforming themselves into wolves and other animal shapes, and it was asserted that if the animal were wounded that the marks of the wound would be discovered upon the wizard's body.
The belief is current amongst many savage tribes that every individual possesses an animal form which he enters at death, or at will. This is effected either by magic or natural agency.
As has been said, the wolf is a common form of animal transformation in Europe. In ancient Greece the belief was associated with the dog, which took the place of the wolf. Other similar beliefs are found in India and Java and in the former country we find the wer-wolf in a sort of vampire form.
Guyon relates the history of an enchanter who used to change himself into different beasts. "Certain people," said he, "persuaded Ferdinand, first Emperor of that name, to command the presence of a Lycanthropy Polish enchanter and magician in the town of Nuremberg to learn the result of a difference he had with the Turks, concerning the kingdom of Hungary; and not only did the magician make use of divination, but performed various other marvels, so that the king did not wish to see him, but the courtiers introduced him into his chamber. There he did many wonderful things, among others, he transformed himself into a horse, anointing himself with some grease, then he took the shape of an ox, and thirdly that of a lion, all in less than an hour. The emperor was so terrified by these transformations that he commanded that the magician should be immediately dismisssed, and declined to hear the future from the lips of such a rascal." 66
It need no longer be doubted," adds the same writer, "that Lucius Apuleius Plato was a sorcerer, and that he was transformed into an ass, forasmuch as he was charged with it before the proconsul of Africa, in the time of the Emperor Antonine I., in the year 150 A.D., as Apollonius of Tyana, long before, in the year 60, was charged before Domitian with the same crime. And more than three years after, the rumour persisted to the time of St. Augustine, who was an African, who has written and confirmed it; as also in his time the father of one Prestantius was transformed into a horse, as the said Prestantius declared. Augustine's father having died, in a short time the son had wasted the greater part of his inheritance in the pursuit of the magic arts, and in order to flee poverty he sought to marry a rich widow named Pudentille, for such a long time that at length she consented. Soon after her only son and heir, the child of her former marriage, died. These things came about in a manner which led people to think that he had by means of magic entrapped Pudentille, who had been wooed in vain by several illustrious people, in order to obtain the wealth of her son. It was also said that the profound knowledge he possessed-for he was able to solve difficult questions which left other men bewilderedwas obtained from a demon or familiar spirit he possessed. Further, certain people said they had seen him do many marvellous things, such as making himself invisible, transforming himself into a horse or into a bird, piercing his body with a sword without wounding himself, and similar performances. He was at last accused by one Sicilius Emilianus, the censor, before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa, who was said to be a Christian; but nothing was found against him.
Now, that he had been transformed into an ass, St.
Augustine regards as indubitable, he having read it in certain true and trustworthy authors, and being besides of the same country; and this transformation happened to him in Thessaly before he was versed in magic, through the spell of a sorceress, who sold him, and who recovered him to his former shape after he had served in the capacity of an ass for some years, having the same powers and habits of eating and braying as other asses, but with a mind still sane and reasonable as he himself attested. And at last to show forth his case, and to lend probability to the rumour, he wrote a book entitled The Golden Ass, a mélange of fables and dialogues, to expose the vices of the men of his time, which he had heard of, or seen, during his transformation, with many of the labours and troubles he had suffered while in the shape of an ass. 66
However that may be, St. Augustine in the book of the City of God, book XVIII., chapters XVII. and XVIII., relates that in his time there were in the Alps certain sorceresses who gave a particular kind of cheese to the passers by, who, on partaking of it, were immediately changed into asses or other beasts of burden, and were made to carry heavy weights to certain places. When their task was over, they were permitted to regain their human shape." "The bishop of Tyre, historian, writes that in his time, probably about 1220, some Englishmen were sent by their king to the aid of the Christians who were fighting in the Holy Land, and that on their arrival in a haven of the island of Cyprus a sorceress transformed a young English soldier into an ass. He, wishing to return to his companions in the ship, was chased away with blows from a stick, whereupon he returned to the sorceress who made use of him, until someone noticed that the ass kneeled in a church and did various other things which only a reasoning being could do. The sorceress who followed him was taken on suspicion before the authorities, was obliged to give him his human form three years after his transformation, and was forthwith executed." "We read," says Loys Guyon, "that Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher, about the time of Lucius Septimius Severus, in the year 196 A.D., had present at his lessons an ass whom he taught. I should think that this ass had been at one time a man, and that he quite understood what Ammonius taught, for these transformed persons retain their reason unimpaired, as St. Augustine and other writers have assured us." 66
Fulgose writes, book VIII., chapter II., that in the time of Pope Leon, who lived about the year 930, there were in Germany two sorceresses who used thus to change their guests into beasts, and on one occasion she changed a young mountebank into an ass, who, preserving his human understanding, gave a great deal of amusement to the passers-by. A neighbour of the sorceresses bought the ass at a good price, but was warned by them that he must not take the beast to a river, or he would lose it. Now the ass escaped one day and running to a near-by lake plunged into the water, when he returned to his own shape. Apuleirs says that he regained his human form by eating roses. 66 "There are still to be seen in Egypt asses which are led into the market-place to perform various feats of agility and tricks, understanding all the commands they receive, and executing them: such as to point out the most beautiful woman of the company, and many other things that one would hardly believe; and Belon, a physician, relates in his observations that he has seen them, and others also, who have been there, and who have affirmed the same to me." "One day there was brought to St. Macarius, the Egyptian," says Calmet, an honest woman who had been transformed into a mare by the wicked art of a magician. Her husband and all who beheld her believed that she had really been changed into a mare. This woman remained for three days without taking any food, whether suitable for a horse or for a human being. She was brought to the priests of the place, who could suggest no remedy. So they led her to the cell of St. Macarius, to whom God had revealed that she was about to come. His disciples wished to send her away, thinking her a mare, and they warned the saint of her approach, and the reason for her journey. He said to them: 'It is you who are the animals, who think you see that which is not; this woman is not changed, but your eyes are bewitched." As he spoke he scattered holy water on the head of the woman, and all those present saw her in her true shape. He had something given her to eat and sent her away safe and sound with her husband." Lytton, Bulwer: Author (1803-1873). According to his baptismal certificate, the full name of this once famous author was Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, and in signing some of his early writings he used all these names with occasional variations in their order, an act which was regarded by many people as springing from pride and pompousness, and which elicited the withering satire of Thackeray in Punch. Lytton was born at London in 1803, and his father was a Norfolk squire, Bulwer of Heydon Lytton Hall; while his mother was Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, a lady who claimed kinship with Cadwaladr Vendigaid, the semi-mythical hero who led the Strathclyde Welsh against the Angles in the seventh century. As a child the future novelist was delicate, but he learnt to read at a surprisingly early age, and began to write verses before he was ten years old. Going first to a small private school at Fulham, he soon passed on to another one at Rottingdean; and here he continued to manifest literary tastes, Byron and Scott being his chief idols at this time. So clever was the boy thought, indeed, that his relations decided it would be a mistake to send him to a public school; and accordingly he was placed with a tutor at Ealing, under whose care he progressed rapidly with his studies. Thereafter he proceeded to Cambridge, where he took his degree easily, and won many academic laurels, while on leaving the University he travelled for a while in Scotland and in France, and then bought a commission in the army. He sold it soon afterwards, however, while in 1827 he was married, and now he began to devote himself seriously to writing, his first publications of note being the novels of Falkland, Pelham and Eugene Aram. These won an instant success, and placed considerable wealth in the author's hands, the result being that in 1831 he entered parliament as liberal member for St. Ives, Huntingdonshire; and during the next ten years he was an active policitian yet found time to produce a host of stories, for instance The Last Days of Pompei and Ernest Maltravers, Zanoni and The Last of the Barons. These were followed shortly by The Caxtons, and simultaneously Lytton achieved some fame as a dramatist, perhaps his best play being The Lady of Lyons; while in 1851 he was instrumental in founding a scheme for pensioning authors, in 1862 he increased his reputation greatly by his novel entitled A Strange Story, and four years later his services to literature and politics were rewarded by a peerage. He now began to work at yet another story, Kenelm Chillingly, but his health was beginning to fail, and he died in 1873 at Torquay.
The works cited above constitute but a fragment of Lytton's voluminous achievement. Besides further novels too numerous to mention, he issued several volumes of verses notably Ismael and The New Union, while he did translations from German, Spanish and Italian, he produced a history of Athens, he contributed to endless periodicals, and was at one time editor of The New Monthly Magazine. But albeit so busy throughout the whole of his career, and while winning vast fame and opulence, Lytton's life was not really a happy one, various causes conducing to make it otherwise. Long before meeting his wife he fell in love with a young girl who died prematurely, and this loss seems to have left an indelible scar on his heart, while his marriage was anything but a successful one, the pair being divorced comparatively soon after their union. Now as a mere child Lytton had evinced a predilection for mysticism, while he had surprised his mother once by asking her whether she was "not sometimes overcome by the sense of her own identity" (almost exactly the same question was put to his nurse in boyhood by another mystic, William Bell Scott); Lytton sedulously developed his leaning towards the occult, and it is everywhere manifest in his literary output. It transpires, for example, in his poem The Tale of a Dreamer, and again in Kenelm Chillingly, while in A Strange Story he tries to give a scientific colouring to old-fashioned magic; but neither this essay nor those others are really to be called triumphant in the artistic sense, and, as Sir Leslie Stephen shrewdly observes, Lytton's "attempts at the mysterious too often remind us of spirit-rapping rather than excite the thrill of supernatural awe." In a word Lytton's outlook on life was theatrical and his mysticism was not a little stagey. MYTHOLOGICAL INTERCHANGE OF "MACROCOSM" AND "MICROCOSM." dr No 52 eswar Finker auf der Treffe. bele auf dem Basher.
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