Psychical Research
A term covering all scientific investigation into the obscure phenomena connected with the so-called "supernatural," undertaken with a view to their elucidation. Certain of these phenomena are known all over the world, and have remained practically unaltered almost since prehistoric times. Such are the phenomena of levitation, the fire-ordeal, crystal-gazing, thoughtreading and apparitions, and whenever these were met with there was seldom lacking the critical enquiry of some psychical researcher, not borne away on the tide of popular credulity, but reserving some of his judgment for the impartial investigation of the manifestations. Thus Gaule, in his Select Cases of Conscience touching Witches and Witchcraft (London, 1646), says: But the more prodigious or stupendous (of the feats mentioned in the witches' confessions) are effected meerly by the devill; the witch all the while either in a rapt ecstasie, a charmed sleepe, or a melancholy dreame; and the witches' imagination, phantasie, common sense, only deluded with what is now done, or pretended." And a few other writers of the same period arrived at a similar conclusion. The result of many of these 66 Psychical Research mediæval records was to confirm the genuineness of the phenomena witnessed, but here and there, even in those days, there were sceptics who refused to see in them any supernatural significance. Poltergeist disturbances, again, came in for a large share of attention and investigation, to which, indeed, they seemed to lend themselves. The case of the Drummer of Tedworth was examined by Joseph Glanvil, and the results set forth in his Sadducisimus Triumphatus, published in 1668. The Epworth Case, which occurred in the house of John Wesley's father, called forth many comments, as did also the Cock Lane Ghost, the Stockwell Poltergeist and many others. The Animal Magnetists and their successors the Mesmerists may, in a manner, be considered psychical researchers, since these variants of hypnosis were the fruits of prolonged investigation into the phenomena which indubitably existed in connection with the trance state. If their speculations were wild and their enquiries failed to elicit the truth of the matter, it was but natural, at that stage of scientific progress, that they should be so. And here and there even in the writings of Paracelsus and Mesmer we find that they had glimpses of scientific truths which were in advance of their age, foreshadowings of scientific discoveries which were to prove the triumph of future generations. The former, for example, states in his writings : By the 7 magic power of the will, a person on this side of the ocean may make a person on the other side hear what is said on this side. . The ethereal body of a man may know what another man thinks at a distance of 100 miles and more." This reads uncommonly like an anticipation of telepathy, which has attained to such remarkable prominence in recent years, though it is not now generally attributed to "the ethereal body of a man." Such things as these would seem to entitle many of the mesmerists and the older mystics to the designation of "psychical researchers." 66 As knowledge increased and systematised methods came into use these enquiries became ever more searching and more fruitful in definite results. The introduction of modern spiritualism in 1848 undoubtedly gave a remarkable impetus to psychical research. The movement was so widespread, its effects so apparent, that it was inevitable but that some man of science should be drawn into an examination of the alleged phenomena. Thus we find engaged in the investigation of spiritualism Carpenter, Faraday and De Morgan, and on the Continent Count de Gasparin, M. Thury and Zöllner. One of the most important of individual investigators was undoubtedly Sir William Crookes, who worked independently for some time before the founding of the Society for Psychical Research. 66 However, although much good work was done by independent students of psychic science," as it came to be called, and by such societies as the Dialectical Society (q.v.) and the Psychological Society (q.v.), it was not until 1882 that a concerted and carefully-organised attempt was made to elucidate those obscure problems which had so long puzzled the wits of learned and simple. In that year was founded the Society for Psychical Research, with the object of examining in a scientific and impartial spirit the realm of the supernatural. The following passage from the Society's original prospectus, quoted by Mr. Podmore in his Naturalisation of the Supernatural, indicates with sufficient clearness its aim and proposed methods. 66
It has been widely felt that the present is an opportune time for making an organised and sytematic attempt to investigate that large group of debatable phenomena designated by such terms as mesmeric, psychical, and spiritualistic. "From the recorded testimony of many competent witnesses, past and present, including observations recently made by scientific men of eminence in various countries, there appears to be, amid much delusion and deception, an important body of remarkable phenomena, which are prima facie inexplicable on any generally recognised hypothesis, and which, if incontestably established, would be of the highest possible value. "
The task of examining such residual phenomena has often been undertaken by individual effort, but never hitherto by a scientific society organised on a sufficiently broad basis."
The first president of the Society was Professor Henry Sidgwick, and among later presidents were Professor Balfour Stewart, Professor William James, Sir William Crookes, Mr. A. J. Balfour, Professor Richet and Sir Oliver Lodge, while prominent among the original members were Frank Podmore, F. W. H. Myers, Edmund Gurney, Professor Barrett, Rev. Stainton Moses and Mrs. Sidgwick. Lord Rayleigh and Andrew Lang were also early members of the Society. Good work was done in America in connection with the Society by Dr. Hodgson and Professor Hyslop. On the continent Lombroso, Maxwell, Camille Flammarion, and Professor Richet-all men of the highest standing in their respective branches of science-conducted exhaustive researches into the phenomena of spiritualism, chiefly in connection with the Italian medium Eusapia Palladino.
At first the members of the Society for Psychical Research found it convenient to work in concert, but as they became more conversant with the broad outlines of the subject, it was judged necessary for certain sections or individuals to specialise in various branches. The original plan sketched roughly in 1882 grouped the phenomena under five different heads, each of which was placed under the direction of a separate Committee. 1. An examination of the nature and extent of any influence which may be exerted by one mind upon another, apart from any generally recognised mode of perception. (Hon. Sec. of Committee, Professor W. F. Barrett.) 2.-The study of hypnotism, and the forms of so-called mesmeric trance, with its alleged insensibility to pain; clairvoyance, and other allied-phenomena. (Hon. Sec. of Committee, Dr. G. Wyld.) 66 3.-A critical revision of Reichenbach's researches with certain organisations called sensitive," and an inquiry whether such organisations possess any power of perception beyond a highly-exalted sensibility of the recognised sensory organs. (Hon. Sec. of Committee, Walter H.
Coffin.)
4.-A careful investigation of any reports, resting on strong testimony, regarding apparitions at the moment of death, or otherwise, or regarding disturbances in houses reputed to be haunted. (Hon. Sec. of Committee, Hensleigh Wedgwood.)
5.-An enquiry into the various physical phenomena commonly called spiritualistic; with an attempt to discover their causes and general laws. (Hon. Sec., Dr. C. Lockhart Robertson.)
Besides these there was a Committee appointed to consider the literature of the subject, having as its honorary secretaries Edmund Gurney and Frederic W. H. Myers, who, with Mr. Podmore, collected a number of historic instances. Of the various heads, however, the first is now generally considered the most important, and is certainly that which has yielded the best results to investigators. In the case of hypnotism it is largely through the exertions of psychical researchers that it has been admitted to the sphere of legitimate physiology, whereas it was formerly classed among doubtful phenomena, even at the time the Society was founded. The examination of Reichenbach's claims to having discovered a new psychic fluid or force- Psychical Research odyle (q.v.)- which issued like flame from the points of a magnet or the human finger-tips, was at length abandoned, nothing having been found to verify his conclusions which, however, previous to this had been largely accepted. The investigations in connection with apparitions and haunted houses, and with the spiritualistic phenomena, are still proceeding, though on the whole no definite conclusion has been arrived at. Though the members of the Society undertook to carry out their investigations in an entirely unbiased spirit, and though those members who joined the Society originally as avowed spiritualists soon dropped out, yet after prolonged and exhaustive research the opinion of the various investigators often showed marked divergence. So far from being pledged to accept a spirit, or any other hypothesis, it was expressly stated in a note appended to the prospectus that "Membership of this Society does not imply the acceptance of any particular explanation of the phenomena investigated, nor any belief as to the operation, in the physical world, of forces other than those recognised by Physical Science." Nevertheless Mr. Myers and Sir Oliver Lodge, to take two notable instances, found the evidence sufficient to convince them of the operation in the physical world of disembodied intelligences, who manifest themselves through the organism of the "medium" or "sensitive." Mr. Podmore, on the other hand, was the exponent of a telepathic theory. Any phase of the " manifestations" which was not explicable by means of such known physiological facts as suggestion and hyperœsthesia, the so-called "subconscious whispering," exaltation of memory and automatism, or the unfamiliar but presumably natural telepathy, must, according to him, fall under the grave suspicion of fraud. His theory of poltergeists, for example, by which he regards these uncanny disturbances as being the work of naughty children, does not admit the intervention of a mischievous disembodied spirit. In coincident hallucination, again, he considers telepathy a suitable explanation, as well as in all cases of "personation" by the medium. His view-one that was shared by Andrew Lang and others was that if telepathy were once established the spirit hypothesis would not only be unnecessary, but impossible of proof.
The More The most important of telepathic experiments were those conducted by Professor and Mrs. Sidgwick in 1889-91. The percipients were hypnotised by Mr. G. A. Smith, who also acted as agent, and the matter to be transmitted consisted at first of numbers and later of mental pictures. agent and percipient were generally separated by a screen, or were sometimes in different rooms, though the results in the latter case were perceptibly less satisfactory. On the whole, however, the percentage of correct guesses was far above that which the doctrine of chance warranted, and the experiments did much to encourage a belief that some hitherto unknown mode of communication existed. recently the trance communication of Mrs. Piper would seem to point to some such theory, though Mr. Myers, Dr. Hodgson and Dr. Hyslop, who conducted a very profound investigation into those communications, were inclined to believe that the spirits of the dead were the agencies in this case. Telepathy cannot yet be considered as proved. At the best it is merely a surmise, which, if it could be established, would provide a natural explanation for much of the so-called occult phenomena. Even its most ardent protagonists admit that its action is extremely uncertain and experiment correspondingly difficult. Nevertheless, each year sees an increasing body of scientific and popular opinion favourable to the theory, so that we may hope that the surmised mode of communication may at last be within a reasonable distance of becoming an acknowledged fact. The machinery of telepathy is generally supposed to be in the form of ethereal vibrations, or "brain waves," acting in accordance with natural laws, though Mr. Gerald Balfour and others incline to an entirely metamorphosed theory, urging, e.g., that the action does not conform to the law of inverse squares.
The subject of hallucinations, coincidental or otherwise, has also been largely investigated in recent years, and has been found to be closely connected with the question of telepathy. Apparitions were in former times regarded as the "doubles" or " ethereal bodies" of the persons they represented, but they are not now considered to be otherwise than subjective. Nevertheless the study of " coincidental hallucinations "-i.e., hallucinatory apparitions which coincide with the death of the person represented, or with some other crises in his life-raises the question as to whether the agent may not produce such an hallucination in the mind of the percipient by the exercise of telepathic influence, which may be judged to be more powerful during an emotional crisis. Now hallucinations have been shown to be fairly common among sane people, about one person in ten having experienced one or more. But the chances that such an hallucination should coincide with the death of the person it represents are about, I in 19,000; that is, if no other factor than chance determines their ratio. With a view to ascertaining whether coincidental hallucinations did actually bear a higher proportion to the total number of hallucinations than chance would justify, the Society for Psychical Research took a census in 1889 and the three or four years immediately following. Professor Sidgwick and a committee of members of the Society conducted the investigations and printed forms were distributed among 410 accredited agents of the Society, including, besides its own members, many medical men and others belonging to the professional classes, all of whom gave their services without fee in the interests of science. In all some 17,000 persons were questioned, and negative as well as affirmative answers were sent in just as they were received, the agents being specially instructed to make no discrimination between the various replies. Out of 8372 men 655 had had an hallucination, and 1029 out of 8628 women-9.9% of the total. When ample allowance had been made for defects of memory with regard to early hallucinations by multiplying the 322 recognised and definite cases by 4, it was found that 62 coincided with a death; but, again making allowances, this number was reduced to 30. Thus we find I coincidental hallucination in 43 where, there being no causal connection we should expect I in 19,000. Clearly, then, if these figures be taken, there must be some causal connection between the death and the apparition, whether it be a spiritualistic or telepathic theory that may be used. Though it be true that memory plays strange tricks, yet is it difficult to understand how persons of education and standing could write down and attest minutes and dated records of events that never happened.
Apart from telepathy, which because it postulates the working of a hitherto unknown natural law, takes premier place, perhaps the most interesting field of research is that of automatism. Trance writings and utterances have been known since the earliest times, when they were attributed to demoniac possession, or, sometimes, angelic possession. By means of planchette, ouija, and such contrivances many people are able to write automatically and divulge information which they themselves were unaware of possessing. But here again the phenomena are purely subjective, and are the result of cerebral dissociation, such as may be induced in hypnosis. In this state exaltation of the memory may occur, and thus account for such phenomena as the speaking in foreign tongues with which the agent is but ill-acquainted. Or, conceivably, cerebral dissociation may produce a sensitiveness to telepathic influences, as would seem apparent in the case of 66 Psychological Mrs. Piper, whose automatic productions in writing and speaking have supplied investigators with plentiful material of recent years, and have done more, perhaps, than anything else to stimulate an interest in so-called spiritualistic phenomena. In connection with the "physical" phenomena-probably no less the result of automatism than the subjective," though in a different direction-the Italian medium Eusapia Palladino has been carefully studied by many eminent investigators both in Great Britain and on the Continent, with the result that Camille Flammarion , Professor Richet, Sir Oliver Lodge-to mention only a few-- have satisfied themselves with regard to the genuineness of some of her phenomena.
On the whole, even if psychical research has not succeeded in demonstrating such matters as the immortality of the soul or the possibility of communication between the living and the dead, it has done good work in widening the field of psychology and therapeutics and in gaining admission for that doctrine of suggestion which since the time of Bertrand and Braid had never been openly received and acknowledged by the medical profession. Many of the obscure phenomena attending mesmerism, magnetism, witchcraft, poltergeists, and kindred subjects have been brought into line with modern scientific knowledge. Little more than thirty years has elapsed since the Society for Psychical Research was founded, and probably in time to come it will accomplish still more, both in conducting experiments and investigations in connection with psychic phenomena, and in educating the public in the use of scientific methods and habits of thought in their dealings with the "supernatural."