Airdrome
CONSISTING OF ELEVEN HANGARS, CAMOUFLAGED TO APPEAR LIKE TWO THRESHING WITH MODERN MACHINERY IN MANITOBA Ewing Galloway PLOWING AN ALFALFA FIELD BY TRACTOR Keystone View Company PRIMITIVE AGRICULTURE ON THE NILE Publishers' Photo Service THE CITY AND HARBOR OF ALGIERS, ALGERIA AFRICA 855 but not until 1830 was knowledge of the river completed by the brothers Lander. Its sources were discovered in 1897 by Moustier and Zweifel. In 1830 the French began the conquest of Algeria, the Franco-Prussian War, and they have gradually pushed its boundary S. into the Sahara. In 1850-1855, Barth, who was followed by many other travelers, explored the Sudan, especially the neighborhood of Lake Tchad, and reached Timbuktu. Napoleon's expedition had given a great impulse to scientific exploration, which was encouraged later by the khedives and led to the conquest of Nubia and Sennar by Mehemet Ali (1805-1848), and, with the additional object of suppressing the slave trade, to (1805-1848), and, with the additional the annexation of the east Sudan by Ismail Pasha (1863-1879).
The Nile has been an object of active interest since 1810, when Salt reached its Abyssince 1810, when Salt reached its Abys- Ali sent two expeditions to discover the sources of the main river, and, in 1860, tude. Further exploration was from the S. The existence of great lakes in central Africa had been known at Mozam- S. The existence of great lakes in cenbeing called to this fact, led to the discovery, in 1849, of the extinct vol- AFRICA The latter, he proved, passes through Lake Bangweolo and joins it with Lake Mweru. He also succeeded beze. through Lake Bangweolo and joins it with Lake Mweru. He also succeeded in strictly defining the sources of the tributary of the Kongo, with the Makua identity of the Ubanggi, the principal or Welle, names previously given to its tributary of the Kongo, with the Makua upper course.
Later Discoveries. - In 1893 and 1894 Marchand explored the regions of Great Bassam on the Ivory Coast, directly 390 Marinel, and, in 1891 Bia, reached the S. E. sources of the Niger. In 1890 Bia, reached the S. E. sources of the In 1891 and 1894 De la Khétulle explored proved the non-existence of Lake Landji.
In 1891 and 1894 De la Khétulle explored from Ubangi to Dar Nefertit. In 1891 Gra Europeans to cross the Kongo Shari succeeded in penetrating from Ubangi in 1891-1894 Brazza, and in 1895 Clozel, explored the Sanga Mambere, an affluent of the lower Kongo. A number of explorers also have penetrated the equa torial W. coast: Bottego and Grixioni, 1892 and 1893; Prince Ruspoli, 1893 and 1894; Count Hoyos, 1893 and 1894.
Donaldson Smith in 1894 and 1895 excanoes, Kilimanjaro and Kenia, by Reb-plored the interior of Somaliland. The mann and Krapf respectively.
In 1856 Du Chaillu explored the southern Ogowe, and, in 1864, penetrated into Ashango and discovered the dwarfs southern Ogowe, and, in 1864, penetrated Lake Tanganyika. In 1858 Lake Victoria Nyanza, then called Ukerewe, was discovered by Speke, who, in 1862, was able to prove that its overflow constituted the origin of the Nile. In 1864 Sir Samuel Baker discovered Lake Albert Nyanza, and later Stanley discovered Lake Albert Edward Nyanza. In 1849- Nyanza, and later Stanley discovered crossed the Kalahari desert, and returned across Africa from St. Paul de Loanda to the mouth of the Zambezi, being the first to accomplish this feat.
In 1859 he discovered the Nyassa and Loanda to the mouth of the Zambezi, the Zambezi and its tributaries; in 1867- In 1859 he discovered the Nyassa and Bangweolo; and, from 1868 to his death in 1873, he investigated Lake Tanganyika and the headwaters of the Kongo. In 1871 he was found by Stanley at Ujiji.
The desire to solve the problem of the Kongo basin led to many expeditions, but the final solution was obtained by Stanley in his journey across the continent in 1874-1877; he showed that the origin of the Kongo was to be found in highlands between Tana, Sabaki, and Kenia were explored by Pigott, Höhnel, and Chanler. Baumann, Stuhlmann, and Verther crossed the Massai steppe. The expedition of Shele in 1894, of Marenski in 1892, and Bumiller, also gave important information regarding the southern half of the German boundary.
In the first years of the 20th century great progress was made in scientific exploration in Africa. Previous to that time indeed, Marchand traversed the continent from Loanga in French Kongo region and the Sahara desert were travto Fashoda on the Nile. The Lake Tchad Between 1900 and 1904 ersed at the same time by other French explorers.
Pierre crossed the continent following in General Marchand's route.
Gautier crossed the Sahara desert from Tuat to the Niger river. German explorers also were active at this period. plorers also were active at this period. region of Victoria Nyanza and Dr. Hans Meyer made the first ascent of Mount Kilimanjaro.
In 1909 By this time the era of exploration began to be superseded by one of detailed study of the geography of Africa, the ethnology of its people and the variety and quantity of its resources. This work advanced so rapidly that by 1913 the AFRICA continent had practically been charted and mapped and the colonization of various portions had been well begun, especially in British and German East Africa. In Rhodesia and other British colonies agriculture and mining were developed on a considerable scale. Railway construction also developed. In 1913 the copper field of Katanga in Belgian Kongo was connected by rail with Capetown, over 2,100 miles to the south. A line from Cairo was extended to Senaar on the Blue Nile, and a branch of the White Nile had been built at El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan. In the Belgian Kongo railroads had been constructed around all the rapids of the upper Kongo. The great lakes, Victoria Kyanza and Tanganyika, were connected by rail with the Indian Ocean, while another railway connected the upper and middle Niger with the sea.
AFRICA King Leopold II. of Belgium in 1876, and the International Association of the Kongo, founded in 1878. These associations organized stations on the Kongo, and, in 1885, an international conference recognized and defined the Inde pendent State of the Kongo (Kongo Free State), of about 1,000,000 square miles in extent. In south Africa the Portuguese settlements, originally founded as early as the time of Diaz and Vasco de Gama, comprise on the E. coast a territory of 260,000 square miles, opposite Madagascar, and on the W. coast an area of 457,500 square miles, from the Kongo to the Cunene river. In 1652 the Dutch sent colonists to the Cape, who were later reinforced by Protestant refugees from France. Cape Colony was finally ceded to Great Britain in 1815 and was afterward colonized from that country. A large part of the Dutch inhabitants, called Boers, migrated, however, inland and founded the two independent republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic, or Transvaal. These two states were annexed to the British crown in 1900 as a result of the war.
The progress of the World War naturally suspended development and exploration in Africa. In spite of this, however, several important expeditions carried on work during the years 1916 to 1920. Among these was the Collins- Garnier French Kongo Expedition which were working in the interests of the Smithsonian Institution. While the objects of the expedition were largely scientific, many important geographical results were obtained. Another party, also in the interests of the Smithsonian Institution, under the direction of Edmund Heller, carried on explorations in the Cape region and western Rhodesia.
Population. Recent authorities roughly estimate the population of Africa at about 140,000,000. About 34,000,000, all of Semitic stock, are intruders from Asia, some in remote or prehistoric times (3,- 000,000 Himyarites in Abyssinia and N. of Cape Colony. A large area N. Harar, from south Arabia), some since the spread of Islam (over 30,000,000 portions: (1) The territory of the Britnomad and other Arabs, chiefly along the Mediterranean seaboard, in west Sahara, and central and east Sudan).
All the rest, altogether, may be regarded as the true aboriginal element, and as falling into two main groups-the negro and negroid peoples, and the Hamític.
Communications. - Railroad communication has been greatly developed in recent years. The total length of African railways in 1920 was about 23,000 miles.
A railway connects Matadi, on the lower Kongo, to Stanley Pool or Leopoldville.
There are steamers plying regularly on the lower Nile, the lower Niger, the Kongo, the Zambezi, the Shire, and on Lake Nyassa.
Political Divisions. - The exploration of the Kongo gave rise to the International African Association, founded by In 1884 the French annexed a territory N. of the Kongo Free State, 250,- 000 square miles in extent; and in 1885 an international conference proceeded to delimit the interior portions of the continent. After 1885 the French regarded Madagascar as a French protectorate, but they had much friction with the native Hovas till a French expedition captured the capital, Antananarivo, Sept. 30. 1895, and the protectorate was completely established. In 1885 Great Britain obtained Bechuanaland, with an area of 446,000 square miles, was also annexed, which consists of two. ish South Africa Company, including Mashonaland and Matebeleland, the latter conquered from King Lobengula in 1893 and an area N. of the Zambezi. (2) Nyassaland, in central Africa. The first of these, which has been settled and colonized to a considerable extent, covers 500,000 square miles, and the latter has an area of 210,000 square miles. In 1884 Germany obtained possession of the Kameruns N. of the French Kongo, with an area of 200,000 square miles, and in 1884-1890 the colonies of German Southwest Africa (320,000 square miles), and German East Africa (350,000 square miles), were added. In East Africa Great Britain obtained (1886-1890) the territory of British East Africa, called Ibea, extending from German East Africa to the Webi-Jub AFRICA river, but including Zanzibar, and penetrating a considerable distance into the interior. It covers an area of
1,000,000 square miles. Somaliland was divided between Italy and Great Britain (1877- 1891), Italy taking over 300,000 square miles and Great Britain 75,000 square miles opposite Aden. Italy also annexed and colonized Eritrea, on the Red Sea (100,000 square miles), and asserted a protectorate over Abyssinia. But the latter arrangement was repudiated by Abyssinia. Nov. 15, 1896, the latter's independence was recognized by the Italian Government.
The first two decades of the 20th century witnessed great changes in the political distribution of African territory.
In 1905 and again in 1911 France and Germany came into conflict over MOROCCO (q.v.). The Orange Free State and the Transvaal, as a result of the Boer War, lost their independence, Kongo Free State was annexed by Belgium, Tripoli became a part of Italy, so that Abyssinia and Liberia remained the only independent nations in Africa.
Prior to the changes brought about as a result of the defeat of Germany in the World War, African territory was divided practically as follows: Egypt, while nominally under Turkish control, was in reality a protectorate of Great Britain, which also exercised sovereignty over the eastern Sudan. Tripoli belonged to Italy, and Tunis and Algeria to France. The greater portion of Morocco also was a French protectorate, while a small portion was governed by Spain. France exercised control of the Sahara region to the upper waters of the Kongo river. Spain possessed a small area on the west coast below Morocco known as Rio de Oro. This was followed by French Mauretania and Senegal, British Gambia, Portuguese Guinea, French Guinea, the British Sierra Leone, Liberia, an additional area of French territory, the British Gold Coast, and Ashanti, German Togoland, French Dahomey, the British Niger territories, and German Kamerun. French Kongo, Portuguese Angola, and German Southwest Africa reached the borders of the Union of South Africa. Between this and the former German province of Southwest Africa on the west is the British protectorate of Bechuanaland and the British colony of Rhodesia. Adjoining East Africa on the north is the former colony of German East Africa.
Southwest Africa reached the borders of the Union of South Africa. Between East ast Africa, which joins on the north the British sphere of influence in the this and the former German province of Southwest Africa on the west is the British protectorate of Bechuanaland AFRICA land. West of the latter is the British Somali Coast Protectorate. This adjoins French Somaliland and Eritrea, Germany is described in the section fol- lowing, Africa in the World War. The such territories as formerly belonged to Germany is described in the section following, Africa in the World War. The details relating to the various divisions mentioned will be found under the headings to these divisions in their proper alphabetical order.
Africa in the World War. At the outthirty years of effort, the territory under break of the war Germany had large colonial possessions in Africa. In less than was the third largest in the world, and in population was only exceeded by the colonies of France, Great Britain and the Netherlands. Her colonial adventure meters with more than 12,000,000 in- habitants. In extent, her African empire meters with more than 12,000,000 inhabitants. In extent, her African empire in population was only exceeded by the colonies of France, Great Britain and the Netherlands. Her colonial adventure began in 1884, when at a single stroke she acquired Southwest Africa, Kamerun, and Togoland. New Guinea was colon- ized by her to one-third of its extent, lands in its vicinity, and in 1895 she together with some of the smaller isized by her to one-third of its extent, together with some of the smaller isreached out for German East Africa. By 1900, she had added to these possessions the Caroline and Marshall Islands, and had become one of the great colonizing powers of the Dark Continent.
From these colonies she obtained coffee, cocoa, rice, bananas, sugar cane, cotton, jute, tropical textiles, palm-oil, rubber, and a vast variety of other materials for the development of her manufacturing and commercial interests.
When the war broke out, it was a be promptly severed, owing to the preforegone conclusion that communication between the colonies and Germany would dominating power of the British navy, to which was to be added the naval by the forces that could be brought strength of Japan. The outcome of the struggle on land was more problematical, for the Germans, though outnumbered against them by the Entente, had the immense advantages of carried on over vast spaces, through pathless jungles and under especially trying climatic conditions. a defensive The German islands in the Pacific were the first to be captured. Samoa carried on over vast spaces, through path- less jungles and under especially trying The German islands in the Pacific Aug. 29, 1914, without a fight. The were turned over by them to the Ausclimatic conditions. were the first to be captured. Samoa were captured by Japan, Oct. 7, 1914, and the Marshall and Solomon Islands tralians Dec. 9, 1914. German New Guinea was taken by the Australian Expeditionary Forces on Sept. 13. Thus in about four months the German flag had AFRICA been lowered on all her former island possessions in the Pacific.
Togoland, a wedge-shaped territory on the north shore of the great Gulf of Guinea, comprising an area of 33,000 square miles, was attacked by joint French and British forces, and after inconsiderable fighting, that scarcely rose to the dignity of outpost skirmishes, was occupied on Aug. 26, 1914.
The conquest of Cameroon-or Kamerun, as the Germans call it was attended with more difficulty. The territory was twice as large as Great Britain, much of it mountainous and thickly covered with jungle. Vigorous preparations for defense had been made for months, and there were comparatively large forces of German soldiers, supported by much larger numbers of native troops, thoroughly equipped, under the command of German officers. Trenches and barbed-wire entanglements had been prepared on an extensive scale.
The colony was in a vulnerable position, having British colonies to the northwest and French on the east and south, while the seacoast was at the mercy of the Allied fleets. The Entente plan of campaign was based on these geographical conditions, and sought to drive the German forces toward the center by attacking from the circumference. In the early part of January, 1915, a junction was effected between a French North Cameroon column under Colonel Brisset and a British force sent from Yola in British Nigeria, under Major Webb-Bowen. In April, the command of the Allied forces, which then numbered 900 men, was taken over by Colonel Cunliffe, and an investment began of the German fortress of Garua. The siege was pressed until June 10, when the garrison under Captain von Krailsheim surrendered unconditionally. The Allied forces, at the end of June, advanced to N'Gaundere, but found that it had been evacuated. On Aug. 11, Kounde was reached by a French force under Captain Jean Ferrandi. An operation was directed against Yoko from Tibati in connection with a column that was being led by Cunliffe from Kontcha. On Nov. 16 a movement was undertaken against strong German positions on Mount Banyo, while on the east two columns, setting out from Bertua and Dume, marched against Tina. The plan was for these forces to converge on Yaunde, the last remaining German stronghold in the territory. The objective was obtained, all resistance proving ineffectual. The remnant of the German forces took refuge in the Spanish Kongo, where they were interned by the Spanish authori- AFRICA ties and the conquest of the Cameroon colony was complete.
The campaign in German Southwest Africa began on Sept. 27, when troops of the Union of South Africa invaded the colony. Walfisch Bay was occupied on Christmas Day of the same year, and on Jan. 14 following, Swakopmund was taken. Determined stands were made by the German forces at Tretskopje and Otjimbingwe, but the Germans were scattered and the advance continued.
Karibib was occupied on May 5 and Windhoek on May 12. The capture of the latter place was important, as 3,000 Europeans and 12,000 natives were taken prisoners. A valuable wireless station, which had been able to keep in touch with Berlin, was also captured, as well as a large large amount of rolling stock. Aus had been taken on April 1 by the force of General Smuts, and this force joined hands with another at Keetmanshoop.
The combined columns pushed on in the direction of Gibeon, where a pitched battle was fought, and to Kabus, where they again encountered stubborn but unavailing opposition. After the fall of Windhoek, the campaign degenerated into guerrilla warfare carried on by the Germans from the hills to which they had retreated. By rapid marches and remarkable persistence this last vestige of opposition was subdued, and on July 9 the German Governor Seitz surrendered to the British all the German forces in Southwest Africa, thus bringing the campaign to an end. The Allied strategy had been dictated by General Botha, whose military fame was greatly augmented by his success. The conquered colony was half again as large as the German Empire.
Much more difficult and prolonged was the Allied campaign for the subjection of German East Africa. No other German dependency was so thoroughly prepared for the struggle. There were only three white German regiments, but they had as auxiliaries a well-trained and armed force of 50,000 Arab and negro soldiers, They were possessed of several hundred machine guns and over 100 Krupp 77-millimeter field pieces.
The earlier phases of the war were marked by minor German successes, an Anglo-Indian attack on Tanga from the sea being repulsed and considerable British territory in the Kilimanjaro region being occupied. It was not until 18 months after the beginning of the war that the Entente forces were really prepared to begin a vigorous offensive.
By that time the local forces in British East Africa, consisting chiefly of native troops, had been augmented by AFRICA volunteers and by British and Indian regiments from India. The conquest of Southwest Africa, which by that time had been com completed, released the forces that had been there employed, and many of these were transferred to the East African Army, which ultimately reached a strength of 20,000. It had been en. Jan C. Smuts planned that General Smith-Dorrien should be in command, but ill health prevented, and Gen. was placed at the head of the Expeditionary Force. The first object sought was the conquest of Kilimanjaro, and in pursuance of this plan Smuts reached Mombasa Feb. 9, 1916. On March 9, Taveta was occupied by one of his columns, and on the 11th there was a fiercely contested fight in the mountainous forests of Latema Nek that resulted in a German retreat. In the Kahe hills on March 21, determined resistance was offered, but aga forced to retire to Usambara, leaving the road to the heart of the country again the Germans were AFRICA were suffering from dysentery and other had been marching and fighting, and diseases. The army was thoroughly rested and reconstituted, 12,000 white troops being sent back to recuperate while their places were taken by newly raised detach tachments.
While these operations had been prosections of the vast territory Br sections of the vast territory. A Belgian force under General Tombeur had struck campaigns were being carried on in other force under General Tombeur had struck at the northwest district and by the end of June had overrun Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria fighting, fell into Belgian hands on Sept. On May 25, 1915, a force of Union Central railway, after ten days of hard fighting, fell into Belgian hands on Sept. 19. the region between On May 25, 1915, a force of Union troops, King's African Rifles and Rho- General desians, under the command of Brigadier- General Northey, attacked the colony from the southwest. The main body followed the road from Lake Nyassa to ral Northey, attacked the colony without defense. Smuts decided to strike Iringa which was occupied on July 29. inland with the Central railway as his The Rhodesian column was successful in objective. General Van Deventer with taking Bismarckburg the 2d Division was sent in a southwest ganyika, from which place it worked direction to cut the line of communication northward until it effected a junction between the main forces of the Germans and their troops in the lake regions. He reached Kondoa-Irangi on April 9, but here was held up for nearly two months by torrential rains. This was taken advantage of by Von Lettow-Vorbeck, the commander-in-chief of the German forces to concentrate a force of 4,000 men, with whom he attacked Van Deventer, but met with defeat. On Jan 24, the rains having ceased, Van Deventer attained the object of his mission and seized the middle section of the railway.
While he was thus operating, the main army was completing the occupation of Usumbara, capturing Wilhelmstal, its capital, June 13, and Tanga, July 7. An attempt was made to combine with Van the object of his mission and seized the and capturing the army of Von Lettowmiddle section of the railway. escape of the latter into the Uluguru hills by a road that had been previously unknown to the British. The junction of the two British forces was, however, effected, after the capture of Mrogoro on Sept. 26. The situation was rendered much more favorable for the British, attempt was made to combine with Van escape of the latter into the Uluguru capital of the colony, was taken by a hills by a road that had been previously British lines of communications by more than 1,000 miles. This success practically ended the campaign for that year, as the troops were exhausted by the much more favorable for the British, on Lake Tanwith the Belgian troops. The campaign had now lasted for about seven months, and in that time the combined operations of the Entente forces had conquered two-thirds of the colony. in avoiding captu For a year following little was acto the the southeast part of the territory courage were freely recognized by his complished besides confining the Germans and in many actions turned at bay and and the south central Mahenge plateau. courage were freely recognized by his suers. But the odds were too heavy, the enemies, succeeded in a final offensive was begun by the Allies inflicted severe casualties upon his pura combined force of British and Belgians, toils kept tightening, and in June, 1917, was forced to surrender on Nov. 27. that was pushed steadily to a conclusion.
Mahenge was captured in October by and one of the main German divisions was able to prolong for nearly a year. With a small force he got over the border From that time on, the campaign reand one of the main German divisions was forced to surrender on Nov. 27. From that time on, the campaign reever, the resourceful German commander with a small force he got over the border into Portuguese East Africa, made his way south n on his tracks in the following September and again made his way into German East Africa. He ultimately reached northern Rhodesia where he finally surrendered Nov. 14, 1918, three days after the armistice had been signed on the western front.
AFRICAN M. E. CHURCH The disposition to be made of the former German colonies in Africa was announced at the Peace Conference, May 6, 1919. The official statement was as follows:
Togoland and Kamerun-France and Great Britain shall make a joint recommendation to the League of Nations as to their future.
German East Africa-The mandate shall be held by Great Britain.
German Southwest Africa-The Mandate shall be held by the Union of South Africa. See WORLD WAR.
AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. See METHODISM.
AFRICANUS. See SCIPIO.