Anarchism
a tendency founded upon anarchy in human society. By anarchy is not to be understood the word in its exaggerated sense of chaos and disorder, but literally a state of society in which authority does not exist; that is, a society with the greatest imaginable independence of the individual, without law and without any relations whatever of superior and inferior. There were tendencies to anarchy in the thought of antiquity and of the Middle Ages as well as in modern times. Anarchistic tendencies first became notably influential as a phase of thought toward the middle of the 19th century, when they were developed under an increasing sense of the misery of the oppressed masses of humanity. The founder of modern anarchism was Peter Joseph Proudhon (1809- (1865) who wrote "What is Property?"
He held that under the compulsion of the laws of property there existed be- ANARCHISM tween employers and workingmen a condition of exchange in commodities most unfavorable to the latter, in consequence of which the capitalist, without working himself, appropriated to himself, most unjustly, a portion of the earnings of the worker. Hence Proudhon's famous conclusion: "Property is robbery." As a remedy for these these unjust conditions, Proudhon held that there should be a free activity of industrial forces under which there would be a just exchange of commodities corresponding to the actual relations of value. In order to achieve such conditions Proudhon rejected law and authority of every kind and demanded a social condition in which there should be absolutely no authority. As a characterization of this condition he was the first to employ the word "anarchy." In his essay, "A General Idea of the Revolution" (1 (1851), he set forth his theory. ANARCHISM with a free development of industrial powers in groups and societies. According to his theory, everybody should share as he pleased in production and also in the enjoyment of the fruits of collective effort. This is the programme of the greater number of the anarchists of to-day, especially of those who are called the Latin anarchists, being those believers in the doctrine who live in western Switzerland, the S. of France, in Italy and in Spain. With the growing development of the Social Democratic organization, anarchy fell more and more into disfavor. These two tendencies, anarchy and socialism, have a common source in a sense of the misery of the oppressed masses, but their ends are directly opposed, the aim of anarchy being to achieve the extreme of individualism, while that of socialism aims to realize the extreme of collectivism.
It found much approval in Germany At the Congress of International Soat first. The doctrine was elaborated cieties of Workingmen, held at The by Max Stirner in a book called "The Individual and His Property," published in 1845. Stirner acknowledges nothing but the will of the individual. He rejects every combination among men toward a higher unity, every compulsion of civilized principles-all of these signifying for him nothing but the enthralment of the individual will. Stirner advocated the path of revolution. The triumph of the reaction in 1848 crowded anarchistic teachings into the background.
In 1852 Proudhon himself in his essay on "The Federative Principle," declared anarchy to be impracticable, and held the correct form of government to be a federation of autonomist communities. The labor agitations that began in the '60's were accompanied by a development of the anarchistic party, chiefly under the influence of Russian agitators. The founder of this party was Michael Bakunin (1814-1876). Since 1864 Bakunin was active in Switzerland as an anarchistic agitator. Unlike Proudhon, he advocated revolution as the means to the end, but he drew the line at murder.
Bakunin sent his disciple, Sergei Netshaye, to Russia and there, in 1869, the latter developed the so-called "propaganda of action"; that is, an agitation by means of deeds of violence, murder and disorder, not for the purpose of overcoming the existing order of society, but simply to arouse sentiment by the effect of horrible deeds.
One of the most eminent representatives of anarchistic doctrines is the Russian Prince Krapotkin (born in 1842). Krapotkin advocates a system of communistic anarchy based upon the idea of free production and consumption, Hague, in 1872, at the instance of Carl Marx, the International Alliance of the Social Democracy, which followed the doctrines of Bakunin, was excluded, and ever since the hostility between the tendencies has been increasing. The German law against socialism, passed in 1878, caused, for the time, a tendency toward anarchism in consequence of the formation of revolutionary groups under the leadership of Most (1846), a former member of the German Reichstag. In consequence of this Most was expelled from the Social Democratic Party and went to London, but, in 1882, he came to New York and advocated the "propaganda of action." Most sought to improve upon the teaching of Proudhon by advocating the regulation of production and price through common action among groups of workers.
In Germany, unlike the Latin countries, the anarchistic agitation has never had much significance. The "propaganda of action," however, has resulted in various deeds of violence-for instance, the atof violence for instance, the attempted assassination of Emperor Wilhelm I., by Hoedel (1878), and the attempt of Reinsdorf against the German princes at the dedication of the Niederwald monument, in 1883. The latter caused the enactment of the law against the criminal use of explosives on June 9, 1884. In consequence of the assassination of the French President Carnot by an Italian anarchist, in December, 1894, there was an attempt made to increase the severity of the German laws, but the proposition was rejected by by the Reichstag. The assassination of the Empress Elizabeth of Austria, by an Italian anarchist, in 1898, and also that ANARCHISM of the Spanish statesman Cánovas by an Italian anarchist led the Italian Government to feel that it was its duty to call for some international action for the suppression of anarchists and an antianarchist conference was held at Rome in the latter part of 1878. It had, however, no further result than a proposition to institute a sort of international intelligence service for the watching of anarchists. King Humbert of Italy was, notwithstanding this vigilance, assassinated by an anarchist, in 1900 (July 29). Francisco Ferrer, who at one period of his life had been actively engaged in anarchistic propaganda, but had later abandoned it, was arrested in 1909, following serious riots in Barcelona, Spain. It was charged that his teachings were responsible for the uprising. In spite of the impossibility of proving these charges definitely, he was executed on Oct. 12, 1909. In November, 1910, an attempt was made by a group of anarchist Socialists to assassinate the Mikado of Japan. Twelve of these were executed.
King George of Greece was assassinated at Salonica on March 18, 1913.
Following the assassination of President McKinley in 1902 by an avowed anarchist, Leon Czolgosz, Congress passed laws excluding anarchists from the classes permitted to immigrate into the United States.
In 1892 France passed the law imposing the death penalty upon those who should cause damage to property by the use of explosives. After the attempt of Vaillant in the Chamber of Deputies and the murder of President Carnot, special laws against anarchists were passed in 1893 and 1894, whereby the glorification of anarchistic crime and the incitement thereto were made criminal offenses and the punishment of anarchists was provided for. In 1894, Switzerland passed a law against the criminal use of explosives and the incitement of such crimes. Similar laws were also passed in 1894-1896 in Spain and Italy. Disordered conditions following upon the end of the World War gave the anarchists an opportunity for carrying on effective propaganda. Although anarchists as a class did not dominate in the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, both the leaders and the rank and file of the movement carried out to a large degree the principles of anarchism. There was persistent propaganda carried on in the United States with the greatest audacity, following the war, by avowed anarchists, the most prominent of whom were Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman. The officers of the Government, under authority given by war ANATOMY measures, began vigorous measures in December, 1919, for the suppression of anarchistic and communistic propaganda.
The headquarters of the radical societies throughout the country were raided and many of the leaders were taken prisoners for the purpose of deportation. In the same month about 300 anarchists, including Emma Goldman and Berkman, were deported. Several thousand other anarchists were held in confinement pending examination.
ANASTASIUS (an-a-stā'shus), the name of four Popes, the first and most eminent of whom held that office for only three years (398-401). He enforced celibacy on the higher clergy, and was a strong opponent of the Manichæans and Origen.
ANASTASIUS I., Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A. D. 491, at the age of 60. He distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices and building the fortifications of Constantinople. His support of the heretical Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion and his anthematization by the Pope. He died A. D. 518. ANATOMY (Greek, "a cutting up or dissecting"), the science of the form and structure of organized bodies; it is practically acquired by separation of the parts of a body, so as to show their distinct formation, and their relations to one another. It is, therefore, a branch of the science of biology, and consists of two great divisions-the anatomy of animals, styled zoötomy, and that of plants, phytotomy.
History of Anatomy. The real founder of the science was Aristotle, born 384 B. C. He seems to have based his systematic views of comparative anatomy on the dissection of animals, but not of men. He first gave the name aorta to the great artery. No real progress in human anatomy was made, owing to the researches being confined to animals, animal till the time of Erasistratus (250 в. c.), who was the first to dissect human bodiesthe bodies of criminals. Herophilus also is said to have dissected living subjects.
Celsus (63 B. c.), in his "De Medicina," wrote on anatomy. Galen (131 A. D.) dissected apes, as being most like human subjects, though he occasionally obtained bodies of persons found murdered; and his writings show a knowledge of human anatomy. Avicenna (980 A. D.), born in the province of Khorassan, was a good osteologist, and described some structures not alluded to by Galen. The medical schools at Bologna, Padua, and Salerno became famous in the 13th cen- ANATOMY tury, but no very material progress was made in anatomy. Mondino, born at Mi- lan, 1315, is considered the real restorer of anatomy in Italy.
William Horman, of Salisbury, wrote Thomas Gemini, of London, in 1545, engraved upon copper the anatomical figures of Vesalius, which had appeared in Germany upon wood. Thomas Vicary, in 1548, is said to be the first who wrote in English on anatomy.
ANATOMY scientific precision, into seven branches combination, and the changes which they undergo in various stages of life. Anatomy has been divided, though not with joints. (3) Myology explains the sys- tem of the muscles, which, by their con- tractile power, serve to impart motion bands that unite the bones of various of the bones, including the cartilages of ogy, which describes the ligaments or tractile power, serve to impart motion to the bones and joints; while, like the bones, they contribute to form the cavitem of the muscles, which, by their conties of the body, and to protect the internal organs. Their form also serves ternal organs. Their form also serves to produce the external shape and sym- metry. (4) Angeiology describes the to produce the external shape and symmetry. (4) Angeiology describes the vessels and ducts, with their complex netsels with the heart, a fleshy organ prowork and ramifications spreading over most parts of the body, and divided into two great systems: (a) the blood vespelling the blood through the pulsating vessels or arteries, from which it re- turns to the heart, after circulation through the veins; (b) the lymphatics, by means of which a certain fluid turns to the heart, after circulation through the veins; (b) the lymphatics, by means of which (lymph) is passed through a series of In the 17th century, progress was rapid. In 1619 Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, and the microscope was employed to detect the strucrapid. In 1619 Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, and the micro- scope was employed to detect the strucdiscovered and demonstrated the existence of the lymph vessels. The glandular organs were investigated by Whardiscovered and demonstrated the exist- ence of the lymph vessels. The glandu- lar organs were investigated by Wharillustrious Ruysch, by the use of injections and the aid of the microscope, gave a new impulse to research in the minute structures. In Italy, which still retained its former pre-eminence, we find Pacchioni, Valsalva, Morgagni, Santorini, a new impulse to research in the minute structures. In Italy, which still retained its former pre-eminence, we find Pac- chioni, Valsalva, Morgagni, Santorini, hat, the founder of gen- organs named lymphatic glands, and afd'Azyr, and Bichat , eral anatomy; in Germany, Haller and Meckel prepared the way for greater achievements in the 19th century; in eral anatomy; in Germany, Haller and ter, Cruikshank, Monro, and Charles Bell contributed to the progress of science; while Holland was worthily represented by Boerhaave, Albinus, Camper, Sandifort, and Bonn. The enormous strides made in practical anatomy during the last 50 years are largely due to the use of the microscope.
The necessity of a union of theory and practice led to the study of pathological anatomy, which is the dissection and study of structures as modified by disease. In the 16th century, many notices of pathological anatomy occur, but Morgagni (1767) is regarded as the true and practice led to the study of patho- logical anatomy, which is the dissection and study of structures as modified by The necessity of a union of theory Hunter, Bailie, Meckel the younger, and others. The recent change of direction given to the study of pathological anat omy must be ascribed to Bichat and the pupils of Broussais, among whom may be mentioned the names of Lænnec, Louis, Andral, Leber, Virchow, and Bennett.
Theoretical anatomy is divided into general and special. General anatomy gives a description of the elementary tissues of which the systems and organs of the body are composed, as preliminary to an examination of them in their combined state in the various organs; it also investigates their laws of formation and gives a description of the elementary tisa certain fluid terward enters the large veins at the root of the neck. The lacteals, which belong to this system of vessels. (5) Neurology, or the doctrine of the nerves, describes the nervous system, as divided into, first, the two central masses of the surface; and lastly, the order of brain and the spinal cord; second, the nerves having a peculiar structure and the ganglionic system of nerves. into, first, the two central masses of the brain and the spinal cord; second, the brain and spinal cord to almost all points (6) Splanchnology describes the viscera or organs formed by combination of the styled the or organs formed by combination of the distinct systems of veins, nerves, lymphinto five groups, viz.: (a) the organs of atics, etc., and mostly situated in the -nostrils, mouth, larynx, trachea, and the senses-sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch; (b) of voice and respiration lung lungs, with the thyroid gland, the thymus the intestines, with the liver, spleen and gland, and the diaphragm; (c) digestive organs-the mouth, with its salivary neys, ureters, bladder, and urethra; (e) glands, the throat, gullet, the stomach, gland, and the diaphragm; (c) digestive organs-the mouth, with its salivary glands, the throat, gullet, the stomach, sexual organs of both sexes. (7) Embryology, the science which treats of the first or rudimentary stage of existence.
The eldest of the Monros of Edinburgh University first gave this branch of the study its due prominence.
Comparative anatomy, the investiga- University first gave this branch of the ANAXAGORAS of two or more animals, has always preceded anthropotomy, or dissection of the human subject, but was first treated systematically as a distinct science by Cuvier and his pupil, Meckel the younger. Blumenbach, Tiedemann, Geoffroy, St.
Hilaire, Goethe, Owen, Wagner, Bowman, Todd, Milne-Edwards, Remak, Leydig, Frey, Haeckel, Agassiz, Carpenter, Allman, Sharpey, Allen Thomson, Huxley, Turner, and Flower, may be named as eminent contributors to this branch of science.
The most general and available assistance in the study of anatomy is found in anatomical engravings and plates on wood and copper. This assistance was known in ancient times. Aristotle affixed to his works on anatomy some anatomical drawings, which have been lost. ANAXAGORAS (an-aks-ag'ō-ras), a famous Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at Clazomenæ in 500 B. C.
He explained eclipses and advanced physical science. In philosophy, he taught that the universe is regulated by an eternal self-existent and infinitely powerful principle, called by him mind; matter he seems to have asserted to be eternal, what is called generation and destruction being merely the temporary union and separation of existing elements; he disproved the doctrine that things may have arisen by chance. Fragments of his "Treatise on Nature" are still in existence. He died in 428 в. c. ANCACHS (än-kächs'), a department ANCONA sacks filled with sand, or logs of wood loaded with lead. Then the Tuscans, or Midas, King of Phrygia, introduced a tooth, or fluke, which was ultimately exchanged for two. The modern anchor consists of a long bar or shank of iron, branching out at the lower extremity into two arms ending in flukes barbed at their extremity, and with a stock of oak or wood at the upper one, while it terminates in a ring, to which a rope or chain is affixed. The arms or flukes are designed to penetrate and fix themselves in the sea-bottom.
An anchor, in architecture, is a kind of carving son somewhat res resembling an anchor.
It is generally used as part of the enrichment of the bottoms of capitals in the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders, or as that of the boultins of bed-moldings in Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian cornices, anchors and eggs being carved alternately throughout the whole building.