Arabia
a vast peninsula in the S.
W. of Asia, bounded on the N. by the great Syro-Babylonian plain, N. E. by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of bra. (3) The Christian arabesque, with the figures introduced. It appears in illuminated medieval manuscripts and and S. W. by the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez. Its length from N. W. to S. E. is about 1,800 miles, its mean elsewhere. breadth over 1,000,000 square miles, its population may be roughly estimated at 10,- 000,000. great Syro-Babylonian plain, N. E. by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, S. E. by the Indian Ocean, and S. W. by the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez. Its length from N. W. table-land, surrounded by a series of deserts, with numerous scattered oases, while around this is a line of mountains ARABIA parallel to and approaching the coasts, and with a narrow rim of low grounds Petræa (containing the city of Petra), (tehama) between them and the sea.
Rivers proper, there are none. By the ancients the whole peninsula was broadly divided into three great sections-Arabia Deserta (desert), and Felix (happy).
The first and last of these answer roughly to the modern divisions of the region of Sinai in the N. W., and Yemen in the S. W., while the name Deserta was vaguely given to the rest of the country.
Political Divisions. The principal di- Red Sea, the last named occupying the southwestern part of the peninsula; cupying the S. E. angle; El-Hasa and Koveit on the Persian Gulf; El-Hamad cupying the S. E. angle; El-Hasa and this, Hejaz, Assir and Yemen, all on the (desert of Syria), Nefud and Jebel Shammar in the N.; Nejd, the Central Highlands, which occupies a great part of the interior of the country, while S. of it is the great unexplored Dahkna or Red Sea, southwestern part of the peninsula; Hadramaut, on the S. coast; Oman oca, the last named occupying the upies a great part (desert of Syriaefud, and Jebel Sandy Desert. Previous to the World Highlands, which occupies Hejaz, Yemen, Bahr-el-Hasa, Koveit, etc., were more or less under the suzeof the interior of the country, while S. etc., were more or less under the suzeof it is the great unexplored Dahkna or Sandy Desert. Previous to the World War Madian belonged to Egypt, the rainty of Turkey. The rest of the country was ruled by independent chiefs sheikhs, emirs, and imams-while the title of Sultan has been assumed by the chief of the Wahabis in Nejd, the sover- eign of Oman (who has a subvention from the Indian Government), and some petty ty princes in the S. S. of the peninsula. to which he fled from Mecca (A. D. 622) from the Indian Government), and some The chief towns are Mecca, the birthand where he is buried; Mocha, a sea- port celebrated for its coffee; Aden, on the S. W. coast, a strongly fortified garplace of Mohammed; Medina, the place capital of Yemen; Muscat, the capiport celebrated for its coffee; Aden, on the S. W. coast, a strongly fortified garrison belonging to Britain; Sana, the capital of Yemen; and Muscat, the capi- tal of Oman, a busy port with a safe anchorage.
There are districts which, in the Climate and Productions. The climate of Arabia, in general, is marked by extreme heat and dryness. Aridity and course of the year, are hardly refreshed bareness characterize both high and low grounds, and the date palm is often the only representative of vegetable existence. by a single shower of rain. Forests and many aromatic plants and subthere are few or none. The date palm furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals are wheat, barley, maize, and mil- let; various sorts of fruit flourish; coffee and many aromatic plants and subthere are few or none. The date palm furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals are wheat, barley, maize, and millet; various sorts of fruit flourish; coffee stances, such as gum arabic, benzoin, cense, etc., are produced. There are also cultivated in different parts of the penin- ARABIA sula, according to the soil and climate, beans, rice, lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, colocynth, poppies, olives, etc. Sheep, goats, oxen, the horse, the camel, ass and mule supply man's domestic and personal wants. Among wild animals are gazelles, ostriches, the lion, panther, hyena, jackal, etc. Among mineral products are saltpeter, mineral pitch, petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several precious stones, as the carnelian, agate and onyx.
People. The Arabs, as a race, are of middle stature, of a powerful though slender build, and have a skin of a more or less brownish color; in towns and the uplands often almost white.
Their features are well cut, the nose straight, the forehead high. They are naturally active, intelligent and courteous; and their character is marked by temperance, bravery and hospitality.
The first religion of the Arabs, a Semitic nature worship, in places like the worship of the stars, was supplanted by the doctrines of Mohammedanism, which succeeded rapidly in establishing itself throughout Arabia. Besides the two principal sects of Islam, the Sunnites and the Shîites there also exists, in considerable numbers, a third Mohammedan sect, the Wahabis, which arose in the latter half of the 18th century, and for a time possessed great political importance in the peninsula. The mode of the Arabs is either nomadic or settled.
The nomadic tribes are termed Bedouins and among them are considered to be the Arabs of the purest blood.
History. The history of the Arabs previous to Mohammed is obscure. The earliest inhabitants are believed to have been of the Semitic race. Jews in great numbers migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and, making numerous proselytes, indirectly favored the introduction of the doctrines of Mohammed. With his advent the Arabians uprose and united for the purpose of extending the new creed; and, under the caliphs-the successors of Mohammedthey attained great power, and founded large and powerful kingdoms in three continents (see CALIPHS). On the fall of the caliphate of Bagdad, in 1258, the decline set in, and on the expulsion of the Moors from Spain the foreign rule of the Arabs came to an end. In the 16th century Turkey subjected Hejaz and Yemen, and received the nominal submission of the tribes inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The subjection of Hejaz has continued down to the present day; but Yemen achieved its independence in the 17th century, and maintained it till 1871, when the territory again fell into the ARABIA hands of the Turks. In 1839 Aden was occupied by the British. Oman early became virtually independent of the caliphs and grew into a well-organized kingdom.
In 1507 its capital, Maskat or Muscat, was occupied by the Portuguese, who were not driven out till 1659.
The Wahabis appeared toward the end of the 18th century, and took an important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their progress was interrupted by Mohammed Ali, Pasha of Egypt, and they suffered a complete defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He extended his power over most of the country, but the events of 1840, in Syria, compelled him to renounce all claims to Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became subject to Turkish sway. Turkey afterward extended its rule not only over Yemen, but also over the district of El- Hasa on the Persian Gulf.
The participation of Arabia in the World War was largely limited to the province of Hejaz, the long strip of territory fronting on the Red Sea, which includes the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The Shereef of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali, had an immense influence with the people of Hejaz, because of his prestige as a lineal descendant of Mohammed. Negotiations were opened with him by the British in 1915 to secure his adherence to the side of the Allies, a project that was rendered the easier by the friction that had for some time existed between Hussein and the Turks. The promise of his military co-operation was secured, and in return the Allies promised him the kingship of an Arabic kingdom, which was to be bounded by the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, Persia, and the 37th degree of latitude. In June, 1916, hostilities were begun by Hussein, who defeated the Turks at Mecca, Taif, and Jedda, and opened up communication with the British fleet in the Red Sea, from which he was thereby enabled to receive ammunition and supplies. In Medina, however, the resistance of the Turkish forces was too strong to be overcome at that time. An expedition, co-operating with the British naval forces, was organized against Wejh on the Hejaz coast and proved successful the city being taken, as were also Dhaba and Moweilah on Feb. 8-9, 1917, thus clearing the northern end of the Red Sea up to Akaba of the enemy. Following this came a period of training and organization of troops by Prince Feisal, the third son of Hussein, and an able and daring commander. Camel corps and cavalry corps were formed, and after the fall of Akaba, Feisal's army became the right wing of the army of Allenby, to whom the Arabs rendered distin- ARABIA guished service in his dazzling campaigns that resulted finally in the taking of Jerusalem, the crushing of three Turkish armies, and the capture of Damascus and Aleppo, events which practically brought the war to an end in that quarter of the world.
Apart from the direct military help afforded the Allies, in the desert and Palestinian fighting for which the Arabs were peculiarly fitted, the adhesion of the Hejaz had_other advantages quite as important. It practically immobilized two Turkish divisions, who otherwise might have been employed elsewhere, and it broke up the line of communication to Africa, Africa, by which the Central Powers were ending emissaries and propaganda to stir up trouble for the French and British in their colonial possessions. By the terms arrived at a conference between the representatives of the Allied Powers at San Remo, Italy, in May, 1920, Great Britain was given the practical protectorate over Mesopotamia, while France was given the protectorate over the Syrian coast, exclusive of Palestine.
Palestine was made a protectorate under Great Britain. The Arabs were greatly discontented with this division of territory, and King Feisal of Hejaz, who had succeeded his father, Hussein, threatened in July, 1920, to begin an aggressive movement to give to the Arabs the practical possession, not only of Syria but of Palestine. See HEJAZ, MESOPOTAMIA, PALESTINE, SYRIA.
Language and Literature. - The Arabic language belongs to the Semitic dialects, among which it is distinguished for its richness, softness, and high degree of development. By the spread of Islam it became the sole written language and the prevailing speech in all southwestern Asia and eastern and northern Africa, and, for a time, in south Spain, in Malta, and in Sicily; and it is still used as a learned and sacred language wherever Islam is spread. The Arabic language is written in an alphabet of its own, which has also been adopted in writing Persian, Hindustani, Turkish, etc. As in all Semitic languages (except the Ethiopic), it is read from right to left. Poetry among the Arabs had a very early development, and before the time of Mohammed poetical contests were held and prizes awarded for the best pieces. The progress of the Arabs in literature, the arts and sciences, may be said to have begun with the government of the caliphs of the family of the Abbassides, A. D. 749, at Bagdad, several of whom, as Haroun al Raschid and Al Mamun, were munificent patrons of learning; and their example ARABIAN NIGHTS was followed by the Ommiades in Spain.
In Spain were established numerous academies and schools, which were visited by students from other European countries; and important works were written on geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. Most of the geography in the Middle Ages is the work of the Arabians, and their histo- JUL ARABIAN ORNAMENT rians since the 8th century have been very numerous. Of their philosophical authors the most celebrated are Alfarabi (10th century), Ibn Sina or Avicenna (died A. D. 1037), Alghazzali (died 1111), Ibn Roshd or Averroes (12th century), called by pre-eminence the Commentator, etc. In medicine they excelled all other nations in the Middle Ages, and they are commonly regarded as the earliest experimenters in chemistry. It was by them that algebra (a name of Arabic origin) was introduced to the western peoples, and the Arabic numerals were similarly introduced. Astronomy they especially cultivated, for which famous schools and observatories were erected at Bagdad and Cordova. The tales of fairies, genii, enchanters, and sorcerers in particular, passed from the Arabians to the western nations as in "The Thousand and One Nights." ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAIN- MENTS, or "THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS," a celebrated collection of Oriental tales, which have, since their introduction to the civilized world, become the delight of all who peruse them. This collection, which had long been famous throughout the East, was brought to the notice of Europeans by the translation ARACACHA of Antoine Galland, a great French Orientalist, in 1704. The best English editions are by Payne and Burton.