Architecture
the art of building or constructing. However elaborate and diversified the edifices of different times ARCHITECTURE, the art of building diversified the edifices of different times and countries may be, all their styles may be traced back to the two chief building materials: wood and stone.
Wooden construction manifests itself in upright pillars with beams laid across them, hence called the trabeate system; tiquity, notably Egypt and Greece, algenuine stone building is dis by the employment of the arch with its though acquainted with the arch, adtype of the pillar and beam; and the abutments. Most of the nations of antype of the pillar and beam; and the or cement. After they had details of their architecture, although executed in stone, show evidences of their wooden origin in the traditional wooden details of their architecture, although mortar learned to build houses, they erected temples for their gods on a larger and fine art. more splendid scale than their own dwellings. The Egyptians are the most ancient nation known to us among whom architecture attained the character of a ARCHITECTURE Egyptian. The history of architecture may be said to begin with the construction of the Egyptian pyramids, 3,000 years or more before the birth of Christ, but not until 2570 B. C. do we CORINTHIAN ARCHITECTURE find in Egypt a form of structure which contains the germ of a style practiced at a later age in Greece.
Assyrian. - Assyria comes next to Egypt for the age and importance of its buildings. The remains of some of these, which are chiefly palaces, are of great splendor. Among the oldest hitherto excavated is the Northwest Palace at Nimrod, built about 884 в. c.
Persian. Persia possesses, in the remarkable ruins of palaces at Persepolis and Susa, built in the 5th and 6th cen- ARCHITECTURE turies B. C., remains which bear a close resemblance to those of Assyria, the constructional parts of these Persian buildings being chiefly of marble, where those of the Assyrians were of wood, having been much better preserved.
Indian. Examples of almost every kind of construction, both in wood and stone, are to be found in the various styles of this wonderful country. Until recent years, it was believed that the cave temples of India were of a very early date, but it has now been ascertained that none of these go further back than the 6th or 7th century of our era. All other ancient monuments in India, with the exception of the topes or pillars erected by the powerful ruler Asoka, are of still more recent date.
Grecian. In historic times the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity an and dignity. This style is of modern origin compared with that of Egypt, and the earliest remains give indications that it was in part derived from the Egyptian. It is considered to have attained its greatest perfection in the age of Pericles, or about 460-430 в. c.
The great masters of this period were Phidias, Ictinos, Callicrates, etc. Distinctive of it are what are called the orders of architecture, by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning and decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had three orders, called respectively the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The most remarkable public edifices of the Greeks were temples of which the most famous is the Parthenon at Athens.
The architecture of ancient Greece flourished from 650 to 324 B. C. Their theaters were semi-circular on one side and square on the other, the semi-circular part being usually excavated in the side of some convenient hill. A number exist in Greece, Sicily, and Asia Minor, and elsewhere. No remains of private houses are known to exist. By the end of the Peloponnesian War (say 400 B. C.) the best period of Greek architecture was over; a noble simplicity had given way to excess of ornament.
Roman. The Romans borrowed their early architecture from that of Greece and Etruria. They built basilicas, baths, bridges, aqueducts, triumphal arches, and domestic buildings. Besides the Coliseum, the Pantheon, the Theater of Marcellus, and the remains of temples, baths, with their great vaulted halls, triumphal arches, and other monuments, still survive as examples of ancient architecture in Rome itself, built between the time of Augustus in the last century B. C., and that of Constantine in the 4th century ARCHITECTURE A. D. At Pompeii, there are interesting examples of the domestic architecture of the 1st century of our era. architecture was Byzantine. With the establishment of Byzantium as the capital of the empire, the Roman style of architecture was naturally much practiced there, and the development of the dome became from the Roman style of arc naturally much practiced there, and the development of the dome became from the first a chief object with the Eastern architects. Christians were first allowed to erect places of worship in the reign of Constantine the Great. The old basilicas or courts of justice were then turned into churches, for which they were well suited, the humbler schola, or hall of meeting, such as was used by the early Christians, as well as by heathen clubs and associations, rather than the basilica, may be the original form of the Christian Church. The name Byzantine is, strictly speaking, applicable only to the Christian architecture of eastern Europe and Asia Minor, from the reign of Justinian to the 11th century. One of the finest buildings in this style is the Church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, founded by Constantine, but rebuilt by Justinian in 547 A. D. The Cathedral of San Vitale, at Ravenna, also erected in the 6th century, and St. Mark's, at Venice, built by architects from Constantinople in the and interesting Byzantine churches in Italy.
Romanesque is the general term applied to all the various round-arched styles which arose in western Europe, Italy. plied to all the various round-arched styles which arose in western Europe, Romanesque is the general term apbe regarded as synonymous with Rhenish architecture. The Cathedrals of Spire, Mayence, and Worms are examples.
Lombard architecture is the form of Romanesque practiced in Lombardy. Examples of it are to be seen in St. Ambroarchitecture. The Cathedrals of Spire, Mayence, and Worms are examples. Lombard architecture is the form of Ro- manesque practiced in Lombardy. Exthe cathedrals at Parma and Piacenza. amp Saxon or Pre-Norman. -The Norman style would link on more naturally than this with the Teutonic Romanesque.
But the Saxon is prior in point of date.
It is simple, and has, as a rule, coarsely dressed masonry. In whole or in part, the churches of Bradford (Wilts), Earl's But the Saxon is prior in point of date. other places in England, are Pre-Norman.
Norman.--This style is also times called Romanesque. No kind of architecture is better known in England and Scotland than the Norman, owing to the abundance of examples which remain. It is characterized by roundheaded openings, by flat buttresses like architecture is better known in England and Scotland than the Norman, owing to the abundance of examples which resome- ARCHITECTURE churches. Among the many examples in ing, especially on many of the doorways and chancel arches of even the smaller England may be mentioned the Cathedrals and parts of Lincoln and Winchester. of Durham, Canterbury, Peterborough In Scotland, Kirkwall Cathedral is the most complete example on a large scale.
DORIC ARCHITECTURE Early English or First Pointed Style.- As soon as the transition from the Norman to first pointed architecture was complete, the latter was characterized by tracery. Further distinguishing features are high gables and roofs, and simple man to first pointed architecture was without any, or with only very simple, pinnacles and spires. In England, Salisbury Cathedral is wholly in this Decorated, Second Pointed, or Middle style, so are the nave and transepts of Westminster Abbey. Scotland has good examples of it in the choir of Glasgow.
Pointed Style. - Windows are divided ARCHITECTURE into a number of lights by comparatively thin m mullions, and their upper portions are filled with beautiful tracery, which at first was of geometrical forms, such as combinations of circles, trefoils, and quatrefoils. A continuation of the arch moldings, instead of shafts with caps, at length characterizes the jambs of the doorways. This is generally considered the most perfect and beautiful style of Gothic architecture. As examples of it may be mentioned the choir of Lincoln IONIC ARCHITECTURE and the nave of York Cathedral; and, in Scotland, portions of Melrose Abbey. The style continued from about 1274 to 1377.
It then gradually stiffened into what is called the Perpendicular, Third Pointed, or Late Pointed Style. - This is easily distinguished from the previous style by the tracery of the windows, which is characterized by an upright and square tendency. Perpendicular lines prevail in the windows as well as in the ornamental paneling. The doorways have square heads over the pointed arches. Gables and roofs are at a low angle. Clerestory windows are more frequently squareheaded than arched. Westminster Hall, ARCHITECTURE London, is an example of this style. The later portion of this period is sometimes called the Tudor style. The elaborately ornamented flamboyant style was the latest style of Gothic in France (15th and 16th centuries). The municipal architecture of the Middle Ages was largely Gothic in type. Roman or classic architecture may be said to have never entirely died out in Rome, and when, in the 15th century, the revival of classic literature and taste took place, the ancient classic style of architecture naturally revived along with them. This is called the Italian Renaissance. Renaissance as applied to architecture means a revival of classical features and details as distinguished from those which characterize the Gothic. The Church of St. Peter's at Rome; the Pitti palace at Florence, various palaces on the Grand Canal at Venice, the Louvre and Tuileries, at Paris; the Banqueting House, in Whitehall, and St. Paul's Cathedral, London, are all examples of Renaissance.
Elizabethan Architecture, and the corresponding style on the Continent, is a variety of Renaissance, in which Gothic and Italian features are somewhat mixed.
Holland House, near London, as well as Hatfeld House, Burleigh House, and Hardwick Hall, are in this style.
Arabian, Saracenic, or Moorish. This singular and beautiful style of architecture dates from the 9th century. It is noted for its graceful domes; for its minarets; for the frequent use of the pointed arch, and of the horseshoe arch; and in some cases for the peculiarly slender columns which support the walls above them. The flat or surface decorations are peculiarly striking and effective. These consist of diaper-work, often richly perforated, and of scroll-work of great variety, often of fairylike lightness. The Moorish Palace of the Alhambra and the Mosque of Cordova, in Spain, furnish striking illustrations of this kind of architecture.
Modern Architecture. In the beginning of the 19th century, the habit of imitating ancient styles was established, and began to be applied to Gothic architecture also, which speedily came to be generally adopted, especially for ecclesiastical edifices. This was particularly the case in Great Britain, and among the Anglo-Saxon race wherever found-in the United States, India, and Australia, as well as at home. All modern architecture is imitative, and it is doubtful whether a really new style is possible. At present Gothic is generally adopted for churches, and Renaissance for domestic buildings.
International Film Service THE CACHE LEFT BY PEARY AT THE NORTH POLE International Film Service Photo by Frank Hurley.
Underwood & Underwood ICE FIELDS OF THE WEDDELL SEA, WHERE SHACKLETON'S PARTY ENCAMPED. IN THE BACKGROUND THE "ENDURANCE" Photo by Frank Hurley.
Underwood & Underwood WEIGHING THE DOGS ON SHACKLETON'S ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. IN THE CENTER IS ONE OF THE SNOW-BUILT KENNELS Photo by Frank Hurley. Underwood & Underwood