Austria-Hungary
a former empire of Europe, composed of a Cisleithan portion of officially known as Austria, and a Transleithan portion known as Hungary, each having its own constitution, a limited monarchy and each formerly possessing separate Parliament, uniting under a common sovereign in the establishment of a common army, navy, financial, diplomatic, postal, and telegraphic services. Supreme Legislature. - Legislation in regard to common affairs was accomplished by a supreme body known as plished by a supreme body known as two, each composed of 60 members, representing the legislative bodies of Austria and Hungary, the upper houses returning 20 and the lower houses 40 delegates. The members of the Delegations were appointed for one year, sumtria and Hungary, the upper houses re- turning 20 and the lower houses 40 delegates. The members of the Deleganately at Vienna and at Budapest. Subject to the Delegations were the four executive departments for Common Affairs, Foreign Affairs, War, and Finance. The agreement between the two countries, termed the Ausgleich, embraced the regulation of their fiscal and commercial affairs, of the quota paid by them to the common expenses of the empire, and the privileges of the Austro-Hungarian Bank.
Empire of Austria. -Austria (capital Vienna) had an area of 115,903 903 square a Lower cial affairs, of the quota paid by them to the common expenses of the empire, and 28,571,934; was governed by an Emthe privileges of the Austro-Hungarian of the Empire, consisting of an Upper Bank.
Vienna) had an area of 115,903 square miles; pop. before the World W. r 28,571,934; was governed by an Em- Empire of Austria.-Austria (capital rath had its own ministers and government, and exercised full parliamentary functions on all matters within its competence-from which, however, foreign affairs and war were excluded. The Upper House was composed princes of the imperial family who were of age, ge, hereditary nobles, of archbishops and bishops, and of life members nominated by the Emperor for distinguished services in science or art, or to the Church or State. The Lower House contained about 350 members, who were the popular representatives of the 16 provinces which comprised the empire. They were elected for six years by four groups: sed of the AUSTRIA-HUNGARY the large landed proprietors; the chambers of commerce; the inhabitants of towns, who paid 50 florins in direct taxation, or who had a vote for the Provincial Diet; and the inhabitants of country districts ministered by 16 Provincial Diets, while similarly qualified. In these four groups local matters were dealt with by comthere were comprised about 2,000,000 voters. Purely provincial matters were admunal councils. Religion and Education. The chief re- Old Catholics, Lutheran ligious bodies in Austria, where religious liberty is the ruling principle, are Roman Reformed Evangelicals, Author and Jews. In Hungary much the same divisions exist. See HUNGARY, JUGOSLAVIA, CZECHO-SLOVAKIA, BOHEMIA, BOSNIA, WORLD WAR, etc.
At the close of the Balkan wars, in 1913, Serbia was left in a far stronger condition than she had ever been in before. She had demonstrated her martial valor and in rerritory. Her growth was extremely displeasing to Austria, which did not relish the idea of having so strong a neighbor, capable perhaps of barring her way across the ceived large accessions of territory. perhaps of barring her way across the Austria, which did not relish the idea of having so strong a neighbor, capable thwart Serbia's legitimate national Balkans to Saloniki. Before and dur- ing the war, she had attempted to all she could through diplomacy to thw ended in Serbia's favor, she had done Later she had tried to make a secret ended in Serbia's favor, she had done all she could through diplomacy to rob her of the fruits of victory. Later she had tried to make a secret arrangement with Italy to attack Serbia on the ground that her Adriatic interests had rejected the overture. were threatened by the latter, but Italy Austria's seizure a few years previously of Bosnia and Herzegovina was another source of the friction between the two nations. The two provinces were aspirations sought to assert themselves largely Serbian in population and almost wholly so in sympathy. Their national acies. Austria, in casting about for a against the alien domination of Austria, and the repressive measures adopted the latter fostered plots and conspiried. The bad blood between of revolt, secretly if not openly. This Serbia denied . pretext for aggression against Serbia, adopted by the two nations was patent to the world, hostilities. and it was assumed that it was only a matter of time before some act would be seized upon as a pretext for open The occasion was furnished on June 28, 1914, when the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated, together with AUSTRIA-HUNGARY his wife, by a student named Prinzip, at Serajevo, Bosnia, while he was making a tour of the provi province. The assassin was at once apprehended and held for trial.
The tragedy created a very bitter feel ing in Austria, which claimed that the plot had been hatched in Belgrade, with the connivance of Serbian officials.
Serbia denied this, but promised a rigorous inquiry into the matter. A plausible pretext for war had now been found, and Austria set to work at once to make it unavoidable. On July 23, 1914, the Austrian Minister at Belgrade presented to the Serbian Government a note from Austria so offensively couched that it startled the world. Compliance with its terms would have made Serbia simply the vassal of Austria. It was practically an ultimatum and demanded an answer in two days. At the end of that time, Serbia replied in a note of studied moderation, accepting all the terms but two. These would have practically stripped her of sovereignty. Even these two Serbia offered to submit to arbitration.
The diplomatic exchanges between the nations that accompanied and followed the Austrian note and the Serbian reply are fully treated elsewhere. (See WORLD WAR.) Austria could not be dissuaded from her predetermined course and on July 28, 1914, declared war on Serbia.
Military operations began at once and Belgrade was bombarded, while an invasion was attempted of Serbia over the Bosnian border. This was checked almost at its inception, but by the end of October an invasion in force was made with 300,000 men. The Serbians, outnumbered, fell back to the hills, where battle was joined Dec. 6 and resulted in a crushing Austrian defeat. The invaders fled in utter rout, and by Dec. 15 the Austrians had been driven across the border and Belgrade had been regained.
Against the Russians the Austrians were equally unsuccessful. On Sept. 1, the Russians Russians began the great battle which resulted in a victory for them, and the capture of the city of Lemberg, capital of Galicia, with a vast number of prisoners and material of war. The Austrians were compelled to seek refuge in the great fortress of Przemysl, which was later invested by the Russians, who compelled its capitulation March 22, 1915, involving the surrender of 130,000 men and 4,000 officers.
Seventy thousand more were captured by the Russians in a tremendous attack upon the Carpathian passes in April, and there was every prospect that they would be able to force the passes and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY pour into Hungary. But at this junoture the tide of battle turned. The Russian Government had failed to keep the army of Grand Duke Nicholas supplied with arms and ammunition, and they were powerless to check the drive directed against them on May 2 by German forces, who in a few weeks had driven them out of the Carpathians and far into Volhynia. This drive, however, which eventually won Warsaw, Ivangorod, Brest-Litovsk, Kovel, Grodno, and Vilna, was purely a German one in its inception and execution, although Austrian forces co-operated under German officers. The operations persisted through the summer and early fall, but by Oct. 1 the German advance had been completely halted.
The campaign of early 1916 was marked by the defeat of Serbia and the taking possession of that gallant little country by the Austrians and Germans, after the Serbians, overwhelmed by numbers, had made a most desperate resistance. Montenegro also was conquered, its principal stronghold, Mt. Lovcen, falling into Austrian hands on Jan. 11.
In the meantime, Italy had entered the war, and had gained some initial advantages on the Carso Plateau. The Austrians concentrated heavy forces on that front, and on May 14 defeated the Italian General Cadorna on a line extending from Val Giudicaria to the sea. The strategic plan of the Austrians was to capture the Italian forces on the Isonzo, with the hope of forcing Italy out of the war and permitting the Austrians to attack France on the Franco- Italian frontier. The plan, however, failed, although Austria made decided gains in the Tyrol and the Trentino.
By June 25 the Italian army was strong enough to take the initiative, and regained considerable of their lost ground. A still more formidable offensive was launched by them on Aug. 6 with Gorizia as the objective. The city was captured on the 9th. By Aug. 17 the Italians had taken many guns and 15,000 prisoners.
During this per period, a remarkable Russian offensive had been in full swing on Austria's eastern front. The supreme command of the Russian armies had been assumed nominally by the Czar, although General Alexieff, assisted by Ivanoff and Brusiloff, was really at the head of operations. The successes attained were among the most remarkable of the war, both in the territory gained and the number of prisoners taken. Lutsk was captured June 6, and Dubno on the 8th. On June 17, the Russians captured the important city of Czernowitz, and by the AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Kolomea was taken June 29. On July 8 the Russians captured Delatyn, and cut the railroad that ran through one of these operations, thousands and tens of thousands of prisoners were being taken every day, and by the time the campaign came to an end, about the first of Sepsquare miles of territory and taken 400,square miles of territory and taken 400,- 000 prisoners. A most damaging blow had been dealt to the Austrian morale, which was not made up by the conquest of Rumania, which was carried through by Germans, Bulgarians, and Turks with but little Austrian assistance.
In February of 1917, the Austrians attacked the Italians in the vicinity of Gorizia and on the Carso Plateau, in an endeavor to regain the initiative. But the effort came to nothing and the opposing armies remained quiescent until the middle of May, when the Italians posing armies remained quiescent until started a terrific offensive, that was maintained continuously for eighteen days. The operations were carried on at a point on the Isonzo between Tolat a point on the Isonzo between Tol- Mt. Cucco were speedily captured, with other important strategic points. The drive in check for a while, but it was resumed on Aug. 19. A marked success was gained in the capture of Monte Santo and more than forty villages, while the Austrian lines were penetrated On the eastern front, another offensive was launched by the Russians on On the eastern front, another offenjective. The Russians reached points within 40 miles of that city, and then were stopped. The Russian army was by within 40 miles of that city, and then a prey to Bolshevist influences. By July 21 it was in full retreat, whole regiments and brigades throwing away their arms a prey to Bolshevist influences. By July Russia had begun, and the pursuit of the retreating troops by the Austrians and and refusing to fight. The collapse of Russia had begun, and the pursuit of the ous resistance. Stanislau, Tarnopol, and Czernowitz were recaptured in quick succession, as the Russians fled toward their own frontiers. There was no longer aggressive action to be feared from that quarter, and Austria was free to throw the bulk of her forces against the Italian front.
That concentration, with the assistance of the Germans, was instrumental the bulk of her forces against the Italian Italians. But the greatest contributing element to this victory was the skillful use of subtle propaganda among a cer- Italians. But the greatest contributing AUSTRIA-HUNGARY tain corps of the army that had weakened its morale. On Oct. 24, a terrific attack was begun by the combined German and Austrian armies, headed by picked divisions of German shock troops.
The violence of the onset broke the Italhad captured 23,000 guns and 250,000 followed. The offensive carried everything before it. In a week the Teutons had captured 23,000 guns and 250,000 men. The first stand of the Italians was forced three days later to continue their ored to hold back the invaders, but were forced three days later to continue their retreat to Livenza. Their resistance was reached the Piave they were at last stiffening, however, and when they Germans, however, still achieved further mountain region, and pushed their lines forward until they were within 8 miles of the Venetian plain. Here, however, fore snow should come to their aid in attempt to overwhelm the Italians, before snow should come to their aid in on Dec. 3, and resulted in six days of severe fighting, in which the invaders made some real but not vital gains. The Venice had not been captured, but im- Venice had not been ca portant positions had been gained that seemed to promise easy access to the Venetian plain as soon as the coming of spring should permit the resumption of operations on a vast scale. captured, but im- The danger was perceived and to some extent rectified by the Allies during the winter. Veteran forces of British and French troops had been hurried to the relief of the Italians, not only to reinforce their numbers, but to strengthen their morale, which had been shaken by the disaster they had suffered. While the latter were reorganizing and rehabilitating their forces, the French and Brit ish, under the direction of General carried out brilliant local actions in the mountains and on the Piave that greatly ous attacks in late December and Janimproved the Allied positions. Vigorous attacks in late December and Jan- Monte Tomba and on the Piave, and closed the gates through which the next Austro-German movement was expected. closed the gates through which the next spring of 1918. The food situation esthe Hapsburgs were very bad in the were made in the already meager rations e. The promised pecially was menacing, and repeated cuts doled out to the people supply of cereals from the Ukraine did not materialize, except to a very limited degree. Political conditions were cha- AUSTRIA-HUNGARY otic, owing to the inability of the Gov. ernment to satisfy the claims of the various racial elements that made up the Empire. There was a vast war weariness, and all that the majority of the population sorely wanted was peace and bread.
Peace was sought by Count Czernin in a conciliatory and moderate speech that he delivered to the Vienna City Council, which was in effect a reply to an address of President Wilson on war aims.
Bust He defended the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which had been scathingly denounced by the American President, and declared himself to be in agreement with many of the latter's principles. A maladroit reference to peace discussions, which, he said, had occurred between France and Austria, on the initiative of the French Premier, Clemenceau, gave rise to one of the most sensational diplomatic incidents of the war. The charge was hotly denied by Clemenceau, who declared that the first step had been taken by Austria, and who, in the discussion that arose, produced a letter written by Emperor Charles himself to a relative by marriage, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon, in which he referred to "France's just claim regarding Alsace-Lorraine." The publication of the letter produced great tension between Berlin and Vienna and Charles was forced to make humiliating explanations before the breach between the governments was closed.
Matters were made still worse by a great military disaster on the Italian front. The German drive in Picardy had been halted, and the dimmed prestige and morale of the Central Powers required a victory in other fields. The Austrian commanders were so confident that this would be achieved, that they had medals struck in advance, commemorating their imagined triumphal entry into Venice.
They had an army of over 1,000,000 men, and they fully expected to repeat the victory of Caporetto over the supposedly disheartened Italian army. On June 15, they made an attack on a front of 97 miles, reaching from the Asiago Plateau to the sea. Their superiority in numbers gained them some initial advantages, and by the 18th they had extended their line over the Montello Plateau to Casa Serena. On the 19th, however, the Italians assumed the initiative, and before long they were driving the invaders back in headlong retreat that soon became a rout. The elements were against the Austrians also, as heavy tempests had swelled the Piave at their back, and swept away the bridges over which they sought to make their escape. The carnage was ghastly.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Men were drowned by thousands, while a storm of shot and shell harried the fugitives. The Austrian losses in killed, wounded and prisoners exceeded 100,000, and enormous quantities of guns, ammunition, and supplies were left in the hands of the victors. The battle practically closed the campaign for that spring and summer. It was the most terrible disaster that had befallen the Austrian arms up to that time in the war.
For the rest of the summer and early fall the opposing armies faced each other, recuperating from their efforts and reorganizing their forces for the last decisive battle. In the interim, Austria, dismayed by her own situation, and the repeated defeats being inflicted upon the Germans, who were being steadily driven back in France and Belgium, was making frantic efforts to secure peace terms before she was utterly overcome in the field. The story of her "peace offensive" has been fully described in another part of this work. Her efforts, however, were fruitless, and the issue had to be decided by the arbitrament of arms. On Oct. 24, the Italians attacked in the Piave and Monte Grappa regions. For scarcely 24 hours, the Austrians resisted, and then their lines gave way everywhere. Soon all pretense of fighting vanished, and the retreat became a debacle. Whole regiments and brigades were captured.
By Nov. 3 the Italians had captured 5,000 guns and over 300,000 prisoners in one of the most overwhelming victories of modern times. On that date the Austrian commander applied for an armistice, which was granted, the terms going into effect on the following day.
On Nov. 11, Emperor Charles, following the example of the Kaiser, abdicated and removed to the castle of Eckhartsau, from which he afterward went into exile in Switzerland.
Disintegration set in immediately, The Empire fell apart like a house of cards. There had never been a real bond of national feeling to hold together the conglomerate races that composed it. On Nov. 15 the Republic of Czecho-Slovakia was established, with Prague as its capital. It embraced the former Austrian crownlands of Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia, together with part of Hungary. The area was four times that of Belgium. Its economic resources were great, as before the war it had furnished 60 per cent. of Austrian iron and 83 per cent. of the coal of the Empire. Thomas G. Masaryk was chosen as its first President, Nov. 19, and a loan of $7,000,000 was negotiated with the United States.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Jugoslavia also sprang into existence at the dissolution of the parent state. It was a confederation of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, and Dalmatia of the former Austrian territory with Montenegro and Serbia, the latter to be the leading member. On Dec. 1 the office of ruler was offered to Prince Alexander of Serbia and accepted by him. The new government was recognized by the United States Feb. 7, 1919.
Hungary also broke its partnership with Austria, and the Hungarian People's Republic was proclaimed Nov. 16, 1918, with Karolyi as Provisional President. The Cabinet that was formed, however, proved unable to cope with the terrible conditions that were the aftermath of the war and resigned in January, Karolyi himself soon afterward following its example. The Communist elements gained control, and a reign of terror was inaugurated under the Bela Kun régime. See HUNGARY.
AUTOCRACY was signed Sept. 10, 1919. An additional proviso made by the Allies was that the new state must abandon the title of "German Austria" and adopt that of "The Republic of Austria."
The economic condition of Austria after the war was worse than that of any other of the vanquished Powers.
During the winter of 1919-1920, the inhabitants of Vienna were on the actual brink of starvation. Help was afforded by the nations of Europe and especially by the United States, and the people were tided through until the harvests of 1920 helped to bring about a restoration to more normal conditions. See RELIEF, WAR.