Biography
that department of literature which treats of the individual lives of men or women; and also, a prose narrative detailing the history and unfolding the character of an individual written by another. When written by the individual whose history is told it is called an autobiography. the kind of literature which it describes Though the term biography is is ancient. In the Book of Genesis there are biographies, or at least memoirs of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and others. Homer's "Odyssey" may be considered to be an extended biography of Ulysses, limited, however, to the most interesting period of his life, that of his wanderings. The most elaborate Greek biography was Plutarch's "Parallel Lives" ("Bioi Paralleloi"), consisting of 46 memoirs of Greek, Roman, and other celebrities; it was published about A. D. 80.
Modern biographical literature may be considered to date from the 17th century, since which time individual biographies have multiplied enormously. Dictionaries of biography have proved extremely useful, Moreri's "Historical and Critical Dictionary" (1671), being, perhaps, the first of this class. During the 19th century the most ambitious biographical work to be attempted was Leslie Stephen's "Dictionary of National Biography" (completed in about 60 volumes, the first of which appeared in January, 1885). There followed Appleton's "Cyclopædia of American Biography" (7 BIOLOGY vols., 1887-1900); White's "National Cyclopædia of American Biography" (New York); "Men and Women of the Time" (London); Vapereau's "Universal Dictionary of Contemporaries" (Paris); "Lamb's Biographical Dictionary of the United States" (8 vols., 1897, et seq.); and "Canadian Men and Women of the Time." Other biographical works of reference are "Who's Who" (English); "Who's Who in America" (latest edition 1920), and similar volumes for other countries, and for different classes and professions. Among works of more limited aim may be noted various "Lives of the Saints," Fox's "Book of Martyrs," various "Lives of the Poets," Boswell's "Life of Johnson," etc.
FIOLOGY. The biological sciences are those which deal with the phenomena of living things. They cover an enormous field of scientific activity and as a whole are pretty clearly separated from the abiological sciences. Interest in biology leading to greater knowledge has vastly increased in the last fifty years, has led to numerous subdivisions of the science, and has made it impossible for a single mind to so completely grasp the entire subject as did Huxley. For this reason the single subject is now rarely recognized as a university department and courses of instruction which are designed to give the student some general but accurate knowledge of the forms and activities of living prominent place in curricula. This is living things have not a unfortunate, for environment brings man in contact with objects for biological study and whatever his main interest in life, he cannot neglect the influence of biological science upon that interest. Subjects such as psychology, sociology, and history are not generally considered as belonging to biology, but they really do; psychology being closely related to physiology, the phases of sociology exhibited by beings other than man are closely interlinked with those exhibited by man, and history broadly considered is but the influence of environmental conditions upon man. Biological science, though holding a place of its own, has close relation with abiological science which is recognized in physics and chemistry by the creation of departments of biophysics and biochemistry. The relation between physics and chemistry is accentuated in the physics and chemistry underlying and controlling the activities of living things, certain chemical and physical arrangements of matter being found almost exclusively in living matter. The methods of biological science are the same as in all other science, experiment holds the BIOLOGY same foremost place, and the comparative method is of great importance. Living matter has certain characteristics which in their entirety distinguish it from all other forms of matter, but no single one of which is differential. 1. It never occurs in solution, but in insoluble units which are heterogeneous in composition. When these units are of sufficient size to be studied under the microscope, optical difference in refraction can be distinguished in the component material, and this indication of difference is accentuated by coloring the material with selective dyes. The materials in the unit have a certain orderly arrangement giving the conception of differentiated organs, and this is more evident in the higher animals and plants.
Living things are known as organisms and organic has become almost synonymous with living. The units of living matter are called cells and these vary in form, structure, and size, some being so large that they can be seen with the unaided eye; others are too small to be seen with the highest power of the microscope. The living thing may be a single cell or in case of the higher animals and plants may be formed of great numbers of cells, those similar in character being combined in masses termed organs which have separate functions but which are co-ordinated with the activity of the organism as a whole. 2. The chemical composition of living material is extraordinarily complex and we are still far from knowing completely its physico-chemical structure. A large number of elements combined to form giant molecules termed proteins is a distinguishing feature. K Knowledge of these proteins is obtained from the study of their split products, for they have not been formed synthetically. The smallest living unit must carry out a number of activities, and if we assume that each of these is due to a difference in the character of the material it is difficult in view of the large size of the molecules that they can all be contained in the unit. Recent investigations of the filterable viruses have shown the existence of living units which are not even visible with the ultra-microscope, and pass through filters which hold back large molecules. Knowledge of the chemical composition of living matter is obtained by the study not of living but of dead protoplasm, and it is possible that living activity may be due not so much to chemical composition as to physicochemical intracellular structure. Living material is generally known as protoplasm, the word first being used by Purkinje, 1787-1869, to describe the material of the embryo. Water in large BIOLOGY but variable amounts always enters into the composition of living matter and life is possible only in a fluid environment. Every living cell must be surrounded by or in contact with water for it is only in this way that substance necessary for its growth can be cor veyed to it and products of waste re moved. Within the cell it plays ar equally important part in making possible chemical changes. 3. All living things, whether represented by the smallest unit or by such a complex organism as man, are individuals and in some way differ from the other individuals of the species.
Such individuality may be evidenced either in obvious differences of structure or by differences in reaction. This holds true as far as methods enable us to study individuality, but such studies cannot be made on all the members of a group of the smallest bacteria. This individuality is due to variation in character or arrangement which may be either molecular or atomic, of the living material, for it is impossible to think of precisely the same structure not giving the same reaction in a common environment. On the other hand, every organ in a mass of such an inorganic substance as sodium chloride is of precisely the same character and gives the same reactions. 4. Living matter possesses to a remarkable degree the power of adaptability to environmental conditions. Different living things show great differences in this power of adaptation, in some it is extremely limited, certain parasites for instance find a suitable environment only within certain cells of a narrow animal species, while in others life is possible in a wide range of environment. As a rule the more complex the organism the greater is the capacity of adaptation.
5. Living matter undergoes constant change, there is constant chemical decomposition, breaking down of high molecular forms into lower, constant oxidation and formation of CO2. Such constant destruction is compensated by equally constant formation of new material. The organism grows when the formative processes more than balance the destructive, and wastes when the reverse takes place. Growth is complicated, for the added material when taken into the cell differs from its substance and must be formed into cell material and organization by the physical and chemical action within the cell. Such growth by intussusception was formerly supposed to distinguish cel intussusception was formerly growth of crystals, but recent investigations have shown that the distinction is BIOLOGY not absolute. The building material is and range of activity with the living usually, in part at least, derived from some form of life, save in the case of plants containing chlorophyll which are able by means of light energy to build up complex substances from the simpler , and this power is shared by certain of the bacteria. Certain organisms are able to pass into what is known as latent life, in which all activity ceases, but can be resumed when the environment becomes favorable. This state is associated with great reduction of the water content and the resumption of activity is inaugurated by rapid absorption of water. 6. Relation of temperature to life.
All chemical processes in living matter and in most cases life itself are possible only within certain temperature limits.
In a condition of latency, temperatures which are destructive to active life can be withstood. The temperature limits within which active life is possible are somewhat above the freezing point of water and somewhat below the point at which albumen coagulates. In the highly organized mammals the temperature limits are narrow and not more than 10° C. The temperature limits for latent life are extremely variable, ranging from 3 to 4 degrees above absolute zero to considerably above the boiling point of water, as shown by the spores of certain bacteria. water 7. All living matter undergoes cyclic change. All forms of life come from pre-existing forms. The living thing grows until it reaches the form and size characteristic of the species, remains in this stage for a variable and often very short period, then the processes of destruction overbalance the processes of growth and there is final disruption of structure, or death. The continuation of life is provided for by the separation of parts of the living matter in which again growth overbalances destruction. In some cases this renewal of life is a simple process, in others extremely complicated. From this it is evident that the living thing is to be regarded as a most complicated and intricate chemical mechanism whose activity is due to forces acting upon it from without.
There is no force inherent in living matter, there are no vital forces independent of and differing from the cosmic forces; the energy manifested by living matter , whatever its form, is counterbalanced by the energy which it receives. It is perfectly true that we cannot explain certain of the forms of energy which the living matter gives off by comparison with such mechanisms as can be produced, but no other mechanism can be compared in complexity of structure BIOPLAST thing. Attempts to bridge the difficulties of comparison of living with mechanisms have been made by the use of such terms as vital force there is no objection to the use of such terms provided it be understood that by them we m merely express ignorance .
Nothing is known of consciousness save as the manifestation of a form of vital activity; nor does it seem to be open to investigation by the methods of science.
It is not known whether it is a general attribute of living matter. Nor is anything known of the primary origin of life. At some period of the evolution of the earth, hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon may have come together in such combinations as water and carbonic acid as would give combinations with other substances to form protoplasm.
The primary difficulty is to explain the origin of protoplasm; given this, evolution will account for all the forms of life. So far as we know living matter is immortal; death is due to the action of conditions which so change its character that the peculiar activities which characterize life are no longer possible . It is not inconceivable that ultra -microscopic forms of life may be originating at the present time.