Cadzand
or CADSAND, a small port of Zeeland, in Holland, near the Belgian frontier. It was a great medieval port; and here in 1337 the English, under Sir Walter Manny and the Earl eval port; and here in 1337 the English, under Sir Walter Manny and the Earl French pay. great importance, being the capital of of the Anglo-Romans, and was then of great importance, being the capital of the province of Britannica Secunda (modern Wales). At a later period it was famous as a seat of learning, and, in the 12th century, Giraldus Cambrensis gave a lively picture of its wealth and magnificence. Many fine Roman remains have been, and are still, found here. Pop. about 2,000.
C. Echinata, from Brazil, and dyes. The CÆSALPINIA, the typical genus of They are trees or shrubs, with showy yellow flowers, 10 stamina, and bipin- natifid leaves. About 50 species are known. The intensely astringent C. cori- They are trees or shrubs, with showy yellow flowers, 10 stamina, and bipinnatifid leaves. About 50 species are ning purposes. They are known in comknown. The intensely astringent C. coriaria has legumes which contain so much tannin that they are valuable for tan- CÆCUM, the beginning of the great merce as dividivi, libidivi, or libidibi, other species, produce valuable red, orgut, commonly called the blind-gut, be- and come from the West Indies and cause it is perforated at one end only; South America. C. crista, also West Init is the first of the three portions into dian, C. C. Sapwhich the intestines are divided. Also a it is the first of the three portions into to be the type of the family cæcidiæ, but wood of the latter, given in powder, is the Brazil-wood of commerce. wood of the latter, given in powder, is pan, from India, furnishes the sappanritellidæ. The species are recent or ter- is not from Brazil, and is now called tiary, commencing in the Eocene period. Pellophorum Linnæi, is said to produce CAEDMON (kad'mon), an English poet;, styled "the father of English wood. An oil is expressed from the generally placed under the family turhistory, written in old Northumberland cies. The roots of C. nuga and C. dialect, mostly without titles, although moringa are diuretic; the seeds of C. one is called "Genesis." He died in 680.
CAEN (kon), a town of France, in of Paris, and Normandy, capital of the department of Calvados, 125 miles N. W. of about 9 miles from the mouth of the Orne, which is here navigable. There is a dock connected with the sea by a canal as well as by the river. It is the center of an important trade , the mar- Normandy, capital of the department of Calvados, 125 miles N. W. of Paris, and about 9 miles from the mouth of the Orne, which is here navigable. There is carries on extensive manufactures. One of the finest churches is that of St.
Pierre, built in 1308. Two other remarkable churches are St. Etienne or Church canal as well as by the river. It is the center of an important trade, the mar- ket of a rich agricultural district, and William the Conqueror, who was buried in it, and La Ste. Trinité or Church of the Abbaye-aux-Dames, founded by the Conqueror's wife. The buildings of the finest churches is that of St. Pierre, built in 1308. Two other remark- able churches are St. Etienne or Church of the latter as a hospital. Other buildings are the castle and the hôtel de ville. There is a public library of over 100,000 volumes, and a botanic garden.
Lace is largely made here. Valuable building stone is quarried. Pop. about 48,000. of the latter as a hospital. Other buildformer abbaye are now used as a college, ings are the castle and the hôtel de ville. There is a public library of over 100,000 volumes, and a botanic garden. bonducella are intensely bitter. Several Chinese species bear soap-pods, that is, pods which may be used as a substitute for soap. pods which may be used as a substitute aceæ.
CÆSALPINIEE, one of the great subdivided. They have an irregular flower, The petals are spreading, the for soap. but not at all so much so as the papilioncases less than five. They have purgastamens adhere to the calyx. They are mostly 10 in number, though in rare tive qualities. They constitute a notable and attractive feature of the vegetation in tropical countries. and attractive feature of the vegetation eminent botanist and Latinized form of the name of Andrea Cesalpino, an physiologist, born in Arezzo, in Tuscany, in 1519. He made his studies at Pisa, afterward lectured there, and had charge of the botanical museum. menced a new epoch in systematic bodied in Rome in 1603. His fame detanical science. pends on his work, "Sixteen Books on Plants" (Florence, 1583), which com- He CÆSAR, the name of a patrician family of the Julian gens, claiming de- CÆSAR scent from Iulus, son of AEneas. The origin of the surname Cæsar is uncertain. CÆSAR, CAIUS JULIUS, son of a Roman prætor of the same name, was born July 12, 102 B. C. His circumstances and connections made him a resolute adherent of the democratic party at Rome. His aunt Julia was wife of Caius Marius; and in 83 B. C.
Julius himself was married to Cornelia, JULIUS CAESAR From a bust in the British Museum daughter of Lucius Cinna, one of the principal enemies of Sulla. The anger of the dictator at this marriage cost Cæsar his rank, p property, and almost his life itself. Feeling that he would be safer abroad for a time, he went to Asia, 81 B. c.; but on learning of the death of Sulla (78 B. c.), he hurried CÆSAR back to Rome, where he found the popular party in a state of great ferment, and anxious to regain what it had lost under the vigorous despotism of the aristocratic dictator. Cæsar, however, took no part in the attempts of Lepidus to overthrow the oligarchy; but he showed his political leanings by prosecuting (77 B. c.) Cnæus Dolabella-a great partisan of Sulla-for extortion in his province of Macedonia. To improve his eloquence, he went to Rhodes to study under the rhetor Apollonius Molo.
In 74 B. c. he returned to Rome, where he had been elected pontifex, and now for the first time threw himself earnestly into public life. He soon became the most active leader of the democratic party, and had a large share in effecting the agreement by which Pompey and Crassus accepted accepted the popular policy.
The result was the overthrow of the Sullan constitution in 70 B. C., and the restoration of popular institutions such as the tribunate. In 68 B. C. Cæsar obtained a quæstorship in Spain. On his return to Rome (67 B. c.), he married Pompeia, a relative of Pompey, with whom he was daily becoming more intimate. In 65 B. c. he held the curule ædileship, and lavished vast sums of money on games and public buildings, by which he increased his already great popularity. For the next few years Cæsar is found steadily active on the popular side. In 63 B. C. he was elected pontifex maximus, and shortly after prætor. During the same year occurred the famous debate on the Catiline conspiracy, in which the aristocratic party vainly endeavored to persuade the consul, Cicero, to include Cæsar in the list of conspirators. In 61 B. C. Cæsar obtained the province of Hispania Ulterior. His government of that province was useful to him as giving him military experience and supplying the means wherewith to meet his enormous debts. On his return he was elected consul, along with Calpurnius Bibulus.
With rare tact and sagacity Cæsar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome, who were then at variance, Pompey and Crassus, and formed an alliance with them, known in history as the First Triumvirate (60 B. C.). Cæsar's proceedings during his consulship were marked by this policy of friendship to Pompey. To strengthen the union which had been formed, Cæsar gave Pompey his daughter Julia in marriage, though she had been promised to Brutus. On the expiration of his term of office, he obtained for himself, by the popular vote, the province of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyricum for five years, to CÆSAR which the senate added to prevent the popular assembly from doing so the province of Gallia Transalpina.
In 58 B. C. Cæsar repaired to his provinces, and during the next nine years conducted those splendid campaigns in Gaul by which he completed the subjugation of the West under the dominion of Rome. In his first campaign he defeated the Helvetii, and also Ariovistus, who with a large number of Germans had settled W. of the Rhine. In 57 B. C.
Cæsar broke up the Belgic confederacy and subdued the various tribes composing it, the greatest struggle being with the Nervii. During the winter and the spring following Cæsar stayed at Lucca, where he had a memorable meeting with Pompey and Crassus, and for three years following agreed upon a common policy. It was decided that Pompey and Crassus should be consuls for the year 55 B. C., while the government of Cæsar in Gaul was to be prolonged for a second term of five years till 49 B. C. In c. In the year 56 B. C. followed the subjugation of the Veneti and other peoples of Brittany and Normandy, and the conquest of Gaul might be considered complete. He now undertook a fourth campaign against two German tribes who were about to enter Gaul. He was again successful. In the autumn of the same year (55 B. c.) he invaded Britain; but after a brief stay in the island , returned to Gaul. In 54 B. C. Cæsar c. Cæsar opened his fifth campaign by a second invasion of Britain, in which he crossed the Thames, and enforced at least the nominal submission of the British tribes in the S. E. of the island. On his return to Gaul, Cæsar was compelled -on account of the scarcity of corn -to disperse his forces for winter quarters, and this encouraged some of the Gallic tribes to revolt. It led to the first serious reverse which Cæsar sustained in Gaul; a division of 15 cohorts was entirely destroyed by the Eburones. But he was speedily master of the insurrection, and exacted a terrible vengeance on its authors.
Cæsar now returned to northern Italy, that he might be able to communicate more easily and securely with his friends at Rome. That city was gradually becoming more anarchic, the evils of weak government more apparent; the hour for decisive action seemed to be approaching, when there broke out a general rebellion of the Gauls, headed by a young warrior of the Arverni named Vercingetorix. It was in the dead of winter when the news came to Cæsar. Without delay he crossed the Cévennes mountains, though they were CÆSAR covered with snow to the depth of six feet. The struggle with Vercingetorix was a severe one; at Gergovia, the capital of the Arverni, Cæsar was defeated, and for a time his affairs seemed in a desperate condition. But he managed to unite his forces, and at the siege of Alesia (52 B. c.) crushed the whole hosts of the Gauls. Vercingetorix surrendered himself, and the independence of Gaul was at on end. Only some isolated tribes continued to resist; and next year (51 в. c.) Cæsar proceeded to quell them. This he successfully accomplished and in addition reduced the whole of Aquitania.
In the meantime Pompey had definitely gone over to the senatorial party. Crassus had fallen in Asia in 52 B. c., 52 B. C., and thus Cæsar and Pompey were left alone, the two most powerful men of Rome. Pompey was jealous of his younger rival. His natural tendency was to adhere to the old aristocratic party. He now cast in his lot with it , and it was decided to break the power of Cæsar. With this view it was necessary to deprive him of his command in Gaul. During the long maneuvering which followed, Cæsar acted with the greatest moderation, and managed to throw upon his opponents the responsibility of violating the law. Under the direction of Pompey the senate summarily called upon him to resign command and disband his army . tribunes Mark Antony and Cassius put their veto on this motion; but they were violently driven out of the senate -chamber, and fearing for their lives, they fled to Cæsar's camp. Things had now come to an extremity. The senate intrusted Pompey with the duty of providing for the safety of the state. His forces far outnumbered Cæsar's legions, but they were scattered over the provinces of the empire, and the Italian levy was unprepared. In face of an enemy of such marvellous promptitude and energy as Julius Cæsar this dilatoriness was fatal. Perceiving that the time for energetic action had at length arrived, Cæsar harangued his victorious troops, who were willing to follow him anywhere; crossed the Rubicon (a small stream which separated his province from Italy proper), and moved swiftly southward. Pompey fled to Brundusium, pursued by Cæsar, but contrived to reach Greece in safety, March 17, 49 The Italian cities everywhere B. C. opened their gates to the conqueror.
In three months Cæsar was master of all Italy.
Cæsar next subdued Pompey's legates in Spain, who were at the head of con- CÆSAR CÆSARIAN OPERATION siderable forces. On his return, he took between Pompeians and Cæsarians. His Massilia, where he learned that he had been appointed dictator of the Republic -a function which at this time he retained only for 11 days, but these were honorably distinguished by the passing of several humane enactments. Pompey, now thoroughly alive to the magnitude of his danger, had gathered in Egypt, Greece, and the East, a powerful army, while his fleet swept the sea. Cæsar, however, crossing the Adriatic at an unexpected season, made a rush for Dyrrhachium, where Pompey's stores were; but was nevertheless outstripped by his opponent. Pompey intrenched his army on some high ground near the city, where he was beseiged by Cæsar. The first encounter was favorable to Pompey, who drove back Cæsar's legions with much loss. The latter now advanced into Thessaly, followed by his exulting enemies. A second battle ensued on the plains of Pharsalia, Aug. 9, 48 B. C. The senatorial army was utterly routed, and Pompey himself fled to Egypt, where he was murdered.
No sooner had the news reached Rome that Cæsar was again appointed dictator for a year, and consul for five years. He was invested with tribunician power for life, and with the right of holding all the magistratial comitia, except those for the election of the plebeian tribunes. He did not, however, return to Rome after the battle of Pharsalia, but went to Egypt, then in a distracted condition on account of the disputes regarding the succession. Out of love for Cleopatra (who subsequently bore him a son), he entered upon the "Alexandrine War," in which he was successful, and which he brought to a close in March, 47 в. c. He next overthrew a son of Mithridates, near Zela, in Pontus, August 2 of the same year, and arrived in Rome in September. He was once more appointed dictator, and the property of Pompey was confiscated and sold. Before the close of the year he had set out for Africa, where his campaign against the Pompeian generals, Scipio and Cato, was crowned with victory at the battle of Thapsus, April 6, 46 в. c. Cato committed suicide at Utica, and with such irresistible celerity was the work of subjugation carried on, that by the end of the summer Cæsar was once more in Rome. Now occurred that display of noble and wise generosity for which Cæsar may be regarded as truly great. He was not a man that could stoop to the vulgar atrocities of Marius or Sulla; he majestically declared that henceforth he had no enemies, that he would make no difference victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa were celebrated by four great triumphs, during which the whole Roman populace was feasted and fêted by the magnificent liberality of the dictator.
Cæsar now proceeded with his schemes for the settlement of affairs at Rome. During the year 46 B. C. he conferred a benefit on Rome and on the world by the reformation of the calendar, which had been greatly abused by the pontifical college for political purposes. After quelling an insurrection which broke out in Spain, where Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus, had collected an army, he received the title of "Father of his Country," and also of imperator, was made dictator and præfectus morum for life, and consul for 10 years; his person was declared sacred, and even divine; he obtained a bodyguard of knights and senators; his statue was placed in the temples; his portrait was struck on coins; the month Quintilis was called Julius in his honor, and on all public occasions he was permitted to wear the triumphal robe. He proposed to make a digest of the whole Roman law for public use, to found libraries for the same purpose, to drain the Pontine Marshes, to enlarge the harbor of Ostia, to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, and to quell the inroads of the Barbarians on the E. frontiers; but in the midst of these vast designs he was cut off by assassination on the Ides (15th) of March, 44 B. C.
Of Cæsar's writings the "Commentaries" on the Gallic and Civil Wars have alone been preserved.
CÆSAREA (sez-a-re'ä), the ancient name of many cities, such as: (1) CÆSAREA PHILIPPI in Palestine, N. of the Sea of Galilee, rebuilt by Philip, tetrarch of Galilee, son of Herod the Great. (2) CÆSAREA, on the shores of the Mediterranean, about 55 miles N. W. from Jerusalem, enlarged and beautified by Herod the Gre Great, and named in honor of Cæsar Augustus; the place where St.
Paul was imprisoned two years (Acts xxiii-xxv). (3) The capital of Cappadocia, in Asia Minor. CÆSARIAN OPERATION, the most serious operation in midwifery, and only resorted to in extreme cases, to save life; as, for example, when a woman fully pregnant dies suddenly, by accident or otherwise, the child being still alive in utero; or when, by reason of deformity, the birth cannot take place naturally or with the aid of ordinary obstetrical instruments, per naturales vias. The operation operation consists in making an incision in the abdomen and remov- CÆSARION ing the child with the contents of the womb en masse, and then sewing up the wound thus made in the usual way. As might be expected, the danger is very great to the living mother. In modern times the operation has lost much of its danger as a result of the improvements in modern surgery, particularly in the knowledge of the correct use of antiseptics, as the great danger lies in septiceis of very ancient origin, being known to the Greeks and called by them hysteis of very ancient origin, being known to the Greeks and called by them hysteratomotoke. The Romans also practiced it, and it was considered by them a fortunate circumstance to be so born.