Canada
DOMINION OF, a Federal Union of Provinces and Territories, comprising all the British possessions in North America, excepting Newfound land; bounded by the Arctic, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans, and the United States, including Alaska. The area in square miles of individual Provinces and Territories, since the reallotment in 1912, is as follows: Prince Edward Island, 2,184; Nova Scotia, 21,428; New Brunswick, 27,895; Quebec, 706,834; Ontario, 407,262; Manitoba, 251,832; Saskatchewan, 251,700; Alberta, 255,- 285; British Columbia, 355,855; Yukon District, 207,076; Northwest Territories, 1,242,224; total, 3,729,665. Pop. (1911) 7,206,643; (1919, est.) 8,835,602; capital, Ottawa.
Topography. Extending over so large a territory, Canada presents a great variety of surface. Along the Atlantic coast is a range of hills extending inland from 15 to 20 miles. About 60 miles inland, the Cobequid mountains, some reaching an altitude of 1,100 feet, extend in a line parallel to the coast from the Bay of Fundy, through Nova Scotia to the Strait of Canso. Nova Scotia is a long fertile plain. A third mountain range crosses New Brunswick from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the State of Maine. An extensive plateau intervenes between these mountains and the Cobequids. The central part of the Dominion consists of a vast undulating plain, extending W. to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. This section includes the W. half of Assiniboia and the whole of Alberta, and consists of three prairie plateaus. The E., 800 feet high, known as the Red River Valley and Lake Winsquare miles of valuable wheat land. The middle plateau has an area of 105,- 000 square miles, altitude,
1,600 feet, and includes the Qu'Appelle and Assiniboia river valleys. The third plateau extends 450 miles E. from the Rocky Mountains, and has an average altitude of 3,000 feet. The Rocky Mountains are the most prominent physical features of the Dominion, and stretch from Alaska to California, some of the peaks attaining a height of 16,000 feet. Among the highest are Mt. Hooker, 16,760 feet; Mt. Brown, 16,000 feet, and Mt. Murchison, 15,700 feet. The Canadian Pacific railroad crosses the Rockies through the Kicking Horse Pass, just S. of Mt. Murchison, at an altitude of 5,300 feet. Between these mountains and the Pacific coast are the Selkirk Mountains, the Gold Range, a central plateau, and the Cascade or Coast Range. The Cascade or Coast Range is a continuation of the Sierra Nevada of California, reaches an altitude of 7,000 feet, and contains many extinct volcanoes. The Selkirk range has a glacier region of greater extent than that of Switzerland. The coasts of the Dominion have numerous indentations, the largest of which are the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Gulf of Georgia, the Bay of Fundy, and the Bay of Chaleurs. In the N. are many large bays or inland seas, of which Baffin Bay on the N. E., and Hudson Bay, near the center of the Dominion, are the largest. The lakes of Canada are the most extensive in the world; besides the Great Lakes, Superior, Huron, Michigan, St. Clair, Erie, and Ontario, there are many large lakes in the Northwest Territories and Manitoba. Among these are the Great Slave, 12,000 square miles; Great Bear, 10,000 square miles; Winnipeg, 8,500 square miles; Athabasca, 2,000 square miles; and Manitoba, 1,900 square miles.
The principal rivers are the Mackenzie, Copper Mine, Great Fish, Slave, Fraser, St. Lawrence, Saskatchewan, and a part of the Yukon.
Mineralogy.-Canada is very rich in its mineral deposits. The most important minerals found are gold, silver, iron, copper, nickel, lead, and coal; besides manganese, cobalt, asbestos, pyrites, phosphates, building stones, marbles, petroleum, and salt. Gold is principally mined in British Columbia, Yukon Territory, and Nova Scotia. In British Columbia and Yukon Territory the deposits of the Klondike region and the Yukon and Fraser rivers are among the richest in the world. The Nova Scotia gold district extends over an area of 6,000 square miles, and the metal is extracted from the quartz in a very fine 4 L Yakutat Mt. Fairweather 156,287 12,750 Mt.Crillon C. Spencer Icy S Cross Sd.
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Thorburn Lake Trinity Bay Fortune B 48° 2. C. Francis Cut bonent/Conception Bay SILE St.Johu Harbor Main Placentia Placentia Bay Great Long St. Mary B C.St. Mary 44 Ferryland C. Race Cepassey Trepassey Bay rераssе 74° 70° 66° 52 38° 56 CANADA and pure state. Gold is also found in rich deposits in the Northwest Terri- tories. Extraordinary silver deposits rich deposits in the Northwest Territories. Extraordinary silver deposits are found in several islands on the N. shore of Lake Superior and in argenand British Columbia. Copper abounds and British Columbia. Copper abounds in British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and the Northwest Territories. The copper Northwest Territories.
The copper found on the N. shore of Lake Superior, and in Ontario, is of excellent quality.
Iron is found in great quantities at Hull, Ontario, in a bed 90 feet thick. This ore is magnetic, yielding 70 per cent. pure iron. Magnetite is also found in Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Silverbearing lead, tin, zinc, and bismuth are Scotia, and New Brunswick. Silverfound in many places. Coal exists in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British Columbia, and the Northwest Territories. The Nova Scotia and New Columbia, and the Northwest Terri- Brunswick fields are of great extent, and the value of this output in British Columbia alone is second only to that of its gold. Anthracite is found in Queen Charlotte and Vancouver Islands.
Among the precious stones of Canada are diamonds, rubies, pearls, amethysts, ates, and jaspers. The total value of the mineral production in 1919 was $167,000,000. The gold production was valued at $16,275,000, the coal production at $12,500,000, the silver production at $13,500,000, and the production of pig iron at $920,000. During the four years down to the close of 1919, the prices of minerals and metals were lucin a large measure toward increasing the total value of the mineral produc tion. In addition to those mentioned above, other important metallic products the total value of the mineral produc- tion. In addition to those mentioned above, other important metallic products site, and mica.
Soil, Climate, etc. - The soil is generally clay, beneath a rich vegetable loam, and is covered in its natural state with oak, elm, walnut, whitewood, pine, fir, and maple trees. It is well adapted to general agriculture, and is capable of the highest cultivation. The climate varies greatly. In the S. provinces the summers are warm, and, although the winters are cold, they are pleasant and bracing. In the W. the climate is milder than in the rest of the Dominion. In the extreme N. the ground is covered with snow early the entire year and the winters are very severe. part of the Dominion is covered with forests.
The greater Agriculture. The greater part of Nova Scotia, Quebec, New Brunswick, Ontario winters are very severe. The greater part of the Dominion is covered with CANADA try lying between Lake Superior and the to agriculture. The total farm wealth of Rocky Mountains, is admirably adapted to Canada exceeds $7,000,000,000. The field crops in 1919, both in value of crops and acreage, are the highest on record. Their value amounted to $1,448,153,500, compared with $1,372,935,570 in 1918. The value of the most important products is as follows: Wheat, $360,573,000; oats, $14,240,000; ); peas, $9,739,300; 00; beans, $6,- $317,097,000; barley, $77,462,700; rye, $1 214,800; buckwheat, $15,831,000; mixed grains, $37,735,400; flax, $22,609,500; $34,179,500; sugar beets, $2,606,000, and $118,894,200; turnips, etc., $54,958,700; alfalfa, $10,800,200. The crops yielded in $34,179,500; sugar beets, $2,606,000, and alfalfa, $10,800,200. The crops yielded in 1919 over a billion bushels of grain, and over 20,000,000 tons of hay and corn.
There were 667,951 farms. Of these 184,- 347 were in Ontario; 143,958 in Quebec; 103,912 in Saskatchewan; 67,603 in Al- 743 in British Columbia, and 13,705 in Manitoba; 37,204 in New Brunswick; 13,- 743 in British Columbia, and 13,705 in Prince Edward Island. Within 50 years from the E. to the W. In 1870 85 per grown in Ontario. In 1919 Saskatchewan alone produced over 60 per cent. of these cent. of the wheat, oats, and barley were alone produced over 60 per cent. of these There were in products in all Canada. The estimated wool yield was 17,300,000 pounds. Canada stood fifth among the world's wheatproducing countries. operation in 1919 nearly 4,000 grain elevators, with a capacity of 221,279,964 bushels.
Fisheries. The fisheries stand fifth in order of value among Canadian in- dustries. The product of the fisheries in 1919 was $37,137,072. A capital of over $30,000,000 is employed, and about 100,handling fishing products. There were 000 persons are engaged in fishing, or in in 1919 over 1,300 vessels, and 40,000 boats engaged in fishing. These were valued at about $10,000,000.
Banking. There were in 1919 a total of 4,442 branch banks in Canada. Bank clearings for the year amounted to $16,- 709,598,895. The total deposits in banks amounted to $1,841,478,895, and the total assets of the banks amounted to $2,965,373,675. 7 were Commerce. The foreign trade of Canada for the year ending Sept. 30, 1919, was as follows: Imports $886,dutiable goods, and $335,617,387 $1,260,312,671, of which $1,201,801,387 free goods. The exports amounted to were Canadian goods, and $58,511,284 were foreign goods. The imports from the United States in 1918 amounted to CANADA $701,087,586. The imports from the United Kingdom amounted to $79,023,- 483. The exports to the United States in 1919 amounted to $433,337,935, and to the United Kingdom, $540,378,091. The principal exports were wheat, flour, oats, fish and fish products, wood and lumber, wood pulp, printing paper, and agricultural products. In the year ending June 30, 1920, Canada exported to the United States goods valued at $537,337,381, and imported from the United States goods valued at at $890,135,023.
Education. Primary education is compulsory. The percentage of illitercompulsory. acy is 11.02 per cent., the highest among the foreign born and the lowest among the native born. There were in 1919 24,871 primary and secondary schools, with 36,000 teachers and 1,250,000 pupils. The Provincial Governments have control of education of elementary schools, secondary schools, normal schools, and universities. In Ontario, Quebec, Alberta, and Saskatchewan there are separate schools for Roman Catholics. In other provinces the schools are non-sectarian. There are 22 universities, and each Province has one or more. In addition, there are several colleges. The most important of the universities are the University of Toronto, McGill University, and Laval University, which is French-Canadian. In the universities and colleges are about 16,- 000 students. The total expenditure for public education is over $60,000,000 annually.
Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is the oldest and largest religious body in Canada, and represents about 42 per cent. of the population.
The Church of England has 28 dioceses, with 1,750 clergymen and over 2,000 churches. The Presbyterian Church has about 1,900 clergymen and about 335,000 communicants. The Methodists have about 380,000 communicants, the Baptists about 140,000, and practically all the other Protestant denominations are represented. The Roman Catholic Church is represented by a cardinal, 11 archbishops, 30 bishops, about 5,000 priests, and 3,000 churches.
Railways. In 1919 there were approximately 35,000 miles of railway in operation. During the year 433 miles of new first track were completed and put in operation. The Canadian Pacific has the longest mileage, with 13,000 miles. The mileage of other principal roads is as follows: Canadian Northern, 9,479; Grand Trunk in Canada, 3,578; Transcontinental, 2,002; Intercolonial, 1,592; Grand Trunk Pacific, 1,794. The government has put into effect a system of nationalization of CANADA railroads, and in 1919 it took over the Grand Trunk railroad. The Canadian Pacific was already nationalized.
Telegraphs and Telephones. There are in the Dominion about 600,000 telephones, with a wire mileage of 1,708,202. The telephone companies employ over 16,000 wage earners. There are about 65,000 miles of telegraph wire, of which about 50,000 is private and 12,000 government. There were in 1919 11 operating telegraph and cable panies, and 4,615 offices, with a capital of $75,000,000. The gross earnings of the telegraph, wireless, and government telegraph service stations is about $10,- 000,000 annually. com- Postoffices. There were in 1919 about 13,000 postoffices. There were 3,733 rural mail delivery routes. There were in 1918 4,931 money order offices, which issued 9,919,665 orders, valued at $142,- 959,168.
Manufactures. The census of manufactures of the year 1917 was completed in 1918. The census is taken every two years. The main results of this census were as follows: The number of manufacturing establishments, 34,380; capital invested, $2,772,517,680; number of wage earners, 619,473; wages paid, $457,245,456; cost of materials, $1,602,820,631; and the value of the products, $3,015,560,869. The capital invested in the leading industries was as follows: Electric light and power, $356,004,168; pulp and paper, $186,787,- 405; log products, $149,266,019; cars and car works, $98,274,585; steel furnaces and rolling mills, $91,894,777; '; flour and grist mill products, $72,573,982 agri- $72.573.9 cultural implements, $70,493,801; foundry and machine-shop products, $69,915,032; car repair shops, $68,763,298; slaughtering and meat products, $68,145,347. Finance. The total revenue for the year 1918-1919 was $312,946,740. The expenditures were as follows: Consolidated fund, $232,731,282; capital account, $25,031,266; war account, $446,- 519,439; capital expended for railways and canals, $19,325,918; and for public works, $5,705,347. The net debt on Dec. 31, 1919, was $1,838,000,000. The net debt prior to the war was $335,996,860.
The debt per capita before the war was $42, and at the close, $250.
Government. The government which originally constituted the Dominion of Canada was composed of Provinces of Canada, Upper and Lower, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. They were united in 1867 by the passage of the British North American Act. The act provides for a constitution "similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom," that the executive authority shall be vested CANADA in the sovereign of Great Britain and a lieutenant-governor appointed, by the Ireland, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy Council; that the legislative power shall be exer- cised by a Parliament composed of a Senate and a House of Commons. The powers of Parliament include all sub- jects not assigned exclusively to the Provincial legislature. Provision was made in the act for the admission of British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, the Northwest Territories, and Newfoundland into the Dominion. The last named has not joined itself to the Doacquired by the Dominion by purchase acquired by the Dominion by purchase from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869. The Province of Manitoba, made from a portion of this Territory, was admitted in 1870. British Columbia became a part of the Dominion in 1871, and in the same year Prince Edward Island was admitted. The Provinces of CANADA as the executive.
Governor-General on of their a lieutenant-governor appointed, by the They have full power to regulate their own local affairs and disposition revenues, provided they do not interexecutive officer and an executive councentral administration. The Northwest Territories are governed by a commissioner and a council of four. The Territory of Yukon is governed by a chief executive officer and an executive council of 10 members, elected by the people. Population. - The population of the Provinces in 1911, with the estimated population in 1918, are as follows:
Alberta (1911) 374,663, (1918) 540,000; British Columbia (1911) 392,480, (1918) (1918) 365,000; Nova Scotia (1911) 560,000; New Brunswick (1911) 351,889, (1918) 365,000; Nova Scotia (1911) 492,338, (1918) 510,000; Ontario (1911) 2,523,274, (1918) 2,799,000; Prince Edward Island (1911) 98,728, (1918) and in the same year Prince Edward Island was admitted. The Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were ad- cording to municipal statistics (1918) 2,432,251; Saskatchewan (1911) 402,431, (1918) 647,875; Yukon (1911) 8,512, mitted to the Union as Provinces on Sept. 1, 1905.
The members of the Senate are nom- Sept. 1, 1905.
The members of the Senate are nomment made in 1917, which increased the representation from the Provinces, the total number may not exceed 104. The House of Commons is elected by the people for five years, unless sooner dissolved, at the rate of one representative for every 30,819 persons. The Province of Quebec always has 65 members, and the other Provinces proportionately ac- 2,432,251; Saskatchewan (1911) 402,431, cording to municipal statistics (1918) (1918) 647,875; Yukon (1911) 8,512, (1918) 10,000; Northwest Territories (1911) 18,481, (1918) 20,000.
The largest cities are Montreal, estimated population (1918), 700,000; Το ronto (1919), 499,278; Winnipeg, about 265,000; Quebec (1919), about 120,000; Ottawa (1919), 107,800; Victoria, about 65,000; St. John, about 63,000; and Halifax, about 62,000. Immigration.-Following the close of the World War, legislation was passed restricting immigration and providing for strict selective tests for those coming into the country. The total number of immigrants in 1919 was 56,982. Of this, United States, and 7,073 from other 9,194 were British, 40,715 from the cording to their population at each decennial census. The House of Commons the other Provinces proportionately acnor-General forms a connecting link between the Crown and the Dominion, and is assisted in his functions by a council composed of 18 heads of departments, including the Premier, the Presi- countries. The total immigration repreand is assisted in his functions by a State, Minister of Mines, Minister of gration from July, 1900, to March 31, Trade and Commerce, Minister of Jus- 1919, amounted to 3,311,498. Of this, ey General, Minister of 1,118,946 were British, 1,268,793 Ameritice, and Attorney Marine, Fisheries, and Naval Service, Minister of Militia and Defense, Postmaster-General, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Public Works, Minister of Finance, Minister of Railroads and Canals, Minister of the Interior, Minister of Customs and Internal Revenue, Minister of Immigration and Colonization, and the Minister of Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment.
There is a Department of External Affairs which has charge of all imperial was and inter-Dominion correspondence. The Dominion Bureau of Statistics established in 1919.
The Provinces each have a separate parliament and an administration, with can, and 853,039 from the continent of Europe.
Indians. - The Indian population in There were 339 Indian 1917-1918 was 105,998. These Indians had land under cultivation of 82,421 acres, with products that were valued at $2,834,149. enrollment of 12,413. Out of 15,000 Inacres, with products that were valued at $2,834,149. There were 339 Indian industrial schools. In these were a total dians of military age over 3,500 enlisted and served in the war.
History. In 1534 Jacques Cartier, a French navigator, entering the St. Lawand served in the war. title, took nominal possession of North America in the name of his king, Francis CANADA I. In 1608 Quebec was founded by De Champlain; in 1623 he built Fort St.
Louis, from which stronghold France ruled for 150 years a vast region extending E. to Acadia (now Nova Scotia), W. to Lake Superior, and ultimately down the Mississippi as far as Florida and Louisiana. The Recollet and Jesuit missionaries traversed the country in all directions, and underwent incredible hardships in their zeal for the conversion of the Indians. These fearless priests were the pioneers of civilization in the Far West, and to La Salle is due the discovery of the Mississippi valley. In 1670 Charles II. granted the Hudson's Bay Company the perpetual exclusive right of trading in territory watered by all the streams flowing into Hudson Bay.
Garrisoned forts were raised at suitable points, and the bitter enmity between the French and the English traders frequently led to bloody struggles, in which sometimes the Indians also took a part The most warlike native tribe was that of the Iroquois, who were persistent enemies of the French, while the peaceful Hurons were steady allies. Meanwhile, the wars on the American continent followed the course of the wars in Europe, until the long struggle between France and England for the supremacy in America came to a close on the "Plains of Abraham" in 1759, when General Wolfe defeated Montcalm. Peace was concluded between Great Britain and France, 1763, when Canada was formally ceded to England, and Louisiana to Spain. In the same year a small portion of the recently acquired territory was by royal proclamation organized under English laws. In 1774 the new province was extended by parliamentary enactment, and that under French laws, down the Ohio to its confluence with the Mississippi, and up the latter stream to its source. Finally, Canada receded to its present limits in 1783, giving up to the American republic at the close of the Revolutionary War, the sites of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In 1791 Canada was divided under separate legislatures into two sections, the E. retaining French institutions, and the W. receiving those of England; and these sections, again, after political discontent had in each ripened into armed insurrection, were reunited for legislative purposes in 1841. In 1867 Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united as the Dominion of Canada, and in 1870 the Hudson's Bay Company's territory was divided into Manitoba and the Northwest Territories and united to the Dominion. British Columbia entered the Union in 1871, and CANADA Prince Edward Island in 1873. In 1870 and in 1885 there were outbreaks of halfbreeds under Louis Riel. In 1893 a court of arbitration concerning the Bering Sea seal fisheries met in Ottawa, and in the same year Canadians were awarded 2,126 prizes at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago. The Sault Ste. Marie canal was opened Sept. 10, 1895, and in 1896 the boundaries of Quebec were extended to the shores of Hudson Bay, adding 118,- 450 square miles to its area. A new tariff was adopted in 1897, giving a preference to English goods. The gold discoveries of the Klondike in 1897 led to great improvement in the transportation service between Yukon and the rest of the Dominion.
For ten years following the election of Sir Wilfrid Laurier as Premier, in 1896, the Liberal party was in power. This period was marked by remarkable economic developments and the tightening of the ties of loyalty between Canada and the Empire. It was also marked by friendly and close relations between the United States and Canada. The participation of Canada in the Boer War indicated her feeling of loyalty toward the mother country.
Differences between the United States, Great Britain, and Canada were successfully settled during Laurier's government. This included the settlement of the Alaskan boundary, which had been a source of irritation for many years. The period was also marked by the development of the rich vacant lands of western Canada, to which American settlers in large numbers were attracted. In 1907 the Dominion entered upon the development of foreign relations, chiefly as a result of the objection against Japanese immigration and labor competition. As a result Canada was included in the commercial part of the treaty of alliance between Japan and Great Britain. The revival of the issue of reciprocity of the United States brought about the defeat of the Liberal party in 1911. The initiative in the negotiations was taken by the United States under President Taft. Sir Wilfrid Laurier warmly favored reciprocity, but it was unpopular with the people, and the Liberals were decisively defeated. Robert Laird Borden became Premier. Under his administration the Dominion continued to develop economically and financially, and at the outbreak of the World War it was prepared to exert its entire power on the side of the Allies.
The part taken by Canada in the great conflict was a notable one. In the valor of her soldiers and the extent of her sacrifices she can bear comparison with any CANADA of the participants. The mettle of Canadian troops was tested first at Ypres , where they stemmed the German rush toward Calais, April 22-27, 1915. At Festubert and Givenchy, in the following May and June, they sustained their reputation. Routine trench warfare followed for the greater part of the year, but in 1916 they fought brilliantly at the battles of St. Eloi in April, Sanctuary Wood in June, Hooge later in that month, and at Mouquet Farm and Courcelette in September and October , respectively .
It was in 1917, however, that they covered themselves with deathless glory in the taking of Vimy Ridge, one of the most brilliant achievements of the entire war. In the early days of the great German drive in March, 1918, the Canadians performed heroic work in keeping the enemy in check, and when the tide of battle turned with the beginning of Foch's great counter-offensive of July 18, they were conspicuous in the work of driving the Germans out of France.
They broke the enemy's lines at Arras in August and smashed the Queant-Drocourt spur of the Hindenburg line in September. Terrific fighting followed at Bourlon Wood, Cambrai, and Valenciennes, and on Nov. 10, the day before the armistice was signed, they took the town of Mons in a splendid bayonet charge. From the beginning to the end of the war their gallantry shed luster on Canadian arms. See WORLD WAR.
The total number of Canadian troops participating in the war was 595,440. Of these 59,575 lost their lives. The total casualties reported up to Jan. 15, 1919 , were 218,463, made up as follows: Killed in action, 35,684; died of wounds, 12,437; died of disease, 4,087; wounded, 155,839; prisoners of war, 3,049; presumed dead, 4,682; missing, 398 and died in Canada, 2,287. The total number of troops who were transported overseas was 418,052.
The personnel of the Canadian navy at the signing of the armistice included 749 officers and men of the Royal Canadian Navy, and 4,374 officers and men of the Canadian Navy Volunteer Reserve. Over 1,700 men in addition had been recruited in Canada for the Royal Navy and were on service abroad. The work of the home forces consisted in patrolling the Canadian coast and waterways and in serving as convoys and protectors of the fishing fleet.
Five War and Victory Loans were issued in Canada during the war, the total subscriptions amounting to $1,432,- 389,277.
Canada was also an important factor in the supply of munitions to the British Government.
CANADA GOOSE Voluntary contributions to the Red Cross, the Y. M. C. A., and other societies, for purposes connected with the war , totaled about $95,000,000 The years 1919 and 1920 were given up to reconstruction. In 1920 Sir Robert Borden resigned and was succeeded by Arthur Mighen, formerly Minister of Mines. In 1920 a new franchise bill was introduced by the Government . According to its terms the only requirements for franchise are British citizenship, residence in Canada for one year, and in the particular constituency for two months, and the attainment of the age of 21.
These requirements apply in the case of male and female voters alike.
To meet the expenses of the Government, a number of special taxes were put into effect in 1920. Modifications were made on the luxury tax and other forms of taxation which had proved to be unpopular.