Cologne Earth
a native pigment similar to the Vandyke brown in its uses and properties as a color.
COLOMBIA, a Republic of South America; bounded on the N. by Panama and the Caribbean Sea; E. by Venezuela and Brazil; S. by Brazil and Ecuador; and W. by the Pacific Ocean; area, 513,938 square miles. Pop. about 5,- 000,000.
Topography. - The surface of the country is extremely varied, with lofty COLOMBIA mountains in the W., and vast plains in the E. scarcely above the level of the sea. The Andes spread out in three great ranges, from the extensive plateau of Pasto in the S. W.; forming valleys running from N. to S. parallel to the three chains. Of the sections outside the main Cordilleras, the principal are the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the N., and the low Baudo range, along the N. W. coast. From the Central Cor- COLOMBIA miles), on the Pacific coast; the Atrato and Zulia (150 miles), flowing N.; the Arauca (600), which, as well as the Meta (700) and Guaviare (850), feeds the Orinoco; and the Caqueta (1,350), the Putumayo (1,100), and the Napo (750), tributaries of the Amazon. The lakes are unimportant.
Climate and Productions. - Colombia possesses all the climates of the world; perpetual snows cover the summits of CATHEDRAL AT COLOGNE dillera the principal rivers, the Magdalena and the Cauca, flow into the Caribbean Sea, besides several affluents of the Amazon in the E., and the Patia, which forces its way to the Pacific, through a gorge between cliffs, 10,000 to 12,000 feet high, and forms the only notable break in the long wall of the Western Cordillera from Darien to Patagonia. The Eastern Cordillera consists of a series of extensive tablelands, cool and healthy, where the white race flourishes as vigorously as in Europe.
E. from this Cordillera stretch vast llanos or plains, through which flow the Meta, the Guaviare, and other tributaries of the Orinoco. Besides these, the chief rivers are the San Juan (navigable 150 the Cordilleras, while the valleys abound in the rich vegetation of the tropics.
The mean temperature ranges from 32° to 82°, according to the elevation. The rainy season falls from November to April except among the low-lying forests of the S. E., where the rain-fall is distributed throughout the year, and in the Choco coast district of the N. W., where, shut in from the N. E. winds, the heavy atmosphere hangs motionless, and mists and torrents of rain alternate.
The hot region, extending to an elevation of about 3,200 feet, produces in abundance, rice, cacao, sugar-cane, bananas, yams, tobacco, indigo, cotton caoutchouc, vegetable ivory, and many medical plants; and the forests, with COLOMBIA their tangua and other stately palms, their rare balsamic resins and valuable dyewoods, are ablaze with flowers and creepers, and steeped in the perfume of their rare balsamic resins and valuable dyewoods, are ablaze with flowers and the delicate vanilla orchid. In the tem- perate zone, from 3,200 to 8,500 feet above the sea, many of these plants are perfume of the delicate vanilla orchid. In the temperate zone, from 3,200 to 8,500 feet above the sea, many of these plants are equally common, but the cocoanut palm gives place to the oak, the encenillo, groups of laurels, and arborescent ferns, gives place to the oak, the encenillo, and here flourish the coffee plant, the odorous cherimoya and curibano, the fig, and here flourish the coffee plant, the and the cinchona tree. The wax-palm extends beyond this region, and is found at a height of nearly 11,000 feet, and large crops of potatoes, grain, and lelarge crops of potatoes, grain, and le- guminous plants are raised in the cold regions. In the N. departments, and in the immense llanos of the E. great herds of cattle, descended from those imported by the Spaniards, are reared; in the central districts, shorthorns and other English, Dutch, and Norman cattle and horses have been introduced, and are throughout the temperate largely raised th
Among the natural mineral zone. products are gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, coal, sulphur, zinc, antimony, arlead, coal, sulphur, zinc, antimony, ar- senic, cinnabar, rock-salt, crystal, granite, marble, lime, gypsum, jet, amethysts, rubies, porphyry, and jasper; while much of the world's platinum is obtained from the upper San Juan, and the principal source of the finest emeralds is at Muzo in Boyaca.
Commerce and Production. The imports in 1918 amounted to £4,406,800 and the exports to £7,545,712. The chief trade is carried on with the United States. The principal articles of export are coffee, bananas, gold, silver, and platinum. The chief imports are flour, lard, petroleum, and cotton works from the United States and Great Britain. Only a small part of the country is under cultivation. While much of the area is fertile, its development is prevented by lack of communication and transport. The chief product is coffee.
Tobacco is also grown and cotton is produced in several provinces. Finance. The estimated revenue for 1920-1921 was 22,000,000 gold pesos, and the estimated expenditure the same amount. The revenue in 1919-1920 was 15,307,350 pesos, and the expenditure 15,307,345 pesos. The external debt in 1919 was £3,766,746. The internal debt in 1919 was 4,500,432 gold pesos.
Railways. There are 15 lines of railways, of which 10 are national and 5 are owned by British companies. The total length of track is 740 miles. The government has undertaken the improvement of the main roads, but in general are owned by British companies. The COLOMBIA tracks. Much of the inland traffic is by river, and the lower and upper Magda- From 1891 numerous attempts have been lene are being improved and cleared. made to construct a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama following the See line of the railroad. The French company failed, and in 1903 sold out their independent state. an franchise and property to the United States Government, and in the same year of a republic, the chief magistrate being a president, elected for six years. The became PANAMA.
Government. The government is that a president, elected for six years. The of a republic, the chief magistrate being president has a cabinet consisting of six members, responsible to Congress. The legislative power vests in a Congress of two Houses, called the Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate, by universal suffrage and numbering 34, is composed of three representatives from each department.
The House of Representatives is elected for four years by consists of one member for each 50,000 inhabitants. Congress elects for a term of two years a substitute, who, failing the president and vice-president during the presidential term, fills the vacancy.
Education, Religion, etc. In 1870 a system of compulsory education was adopted which has, on the whole, proved schools with successful. Public instruction is under the direction of the Minister of Public 5,733 teachers. Nearly all the schools Instruction. There were in 1917 5,488 primary schools, with 430,707 pupils, and 5,7 for secondary education are carried on by religious corporations of the Cath- olic Church. There are nearly 400 sec- ondary and professional schools with olic Church. There are nearly 400 secondary and professional sch about 35,000 pupils. There are about 100 art and trade schools with about 8,000 pupils. The chief university is 1572. There are also universities at The annual expenditure for 1572. There are also universities at Pasto. There were in 1918 29 normal education is about 1,000,000 pesos. schools. The annual expenditure for schools.
The State Church is the Roman Cathwere suppressed in olic, which in the management of its own affairs is independent of civil authority; religious orders 1863, and toleration in matters of re- Holy See in 1888, religion is one of the ligion is guaranteed; but, by the terms of a concordat entered into with the obligatory subjects of study in all educational establishments. History. The N. coasts of Colombia were visited by Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci, in 1499, and afterward by Bastidas; in 1502 Columbus explored part of the country, and endeavored to found COLOMBIA on the Isthmus of Panama the first Spanish colony on the American mainland. In 1513 Balboa discovered the Pacific, and Pizarro and Almagro sailed along the W. coast of Colombia on their way to Peru in 1526. Ten years later Jiminez de Quesada broke the power of the Muyscan empire, and the Nuevo Reino de Granada was formed. As the country was opened up, the Indians sank to the condition of serfs, and the policy of the crown, aided by the Inquisition, which was introduced in 1571, put an end to the democratic institutions of the early settlers. The country formed a presidency (except during the years 1718-1724) from 1564 to 1739, a period memorable for the disastrous descents of Drake, Morgan, Dampier, and others on the coast towns; it was then raised to a viceroyalty, which lasted until the war of independence. A revolution broke out July 20, 1810, which ended in the election of Bolivar to the presidency of the Republic of Colombia, a term which, like the viceroyalty, embraced all that now belongs to Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. So long as union was necessary to meet external dangers, it maintained an imposing attitude in the eyes of the world; orld; gradually sectional interests and political jealousies did their work, and in 1831 the ill-assorted elements of the confederation were separated. What is now Colombia was then formed under the title of the Republic of New Granada, but in 1861 a fresh civil war led to the establishment of the United States of Colombia. In 1863 a constitution was adopted, based on that of the United States of America, with a president elected for two years; but this proved altogether unsuited to the Colombians, and, after twenty years' trial, brought about the revolution of 1884- 1885. In 1886 a fresh constitution was adopted for the new Republic of Colombia, placing the central authority in the hands of the Federal Government.
The chief international political interest of Colombia in recent years has centered about the formation and recognition of the Republic of Panama and the construction of the Panama Canal.
The recognition of the new Republic of Panama, which included a former province of Colombia, created much resentment in the latter country. In 1909 a treaty was negotiated between Panama and the United States in which the two powers were exonerated by Colombia from the charge of injustice. The popular feeling against the treaty was so great that President Reyes, who supported it, was forced to resign. In the following year there were serious riots COLON a in Bogotá against the United States minister and American citizens. This was followed by an apology by the Colombian Government. Shortly after the inauguration of President Wilson treaty was negotiated with Colombia in which the United States, in effect, apologized for the methods employed to secure the Panama Canal Zone, and offered to pay Colombia $25,000,000 damages. This treaty, however, failed to pass the Senate. Difficulties with Peru over the southern boundary of Colombia arose in 1911 and Peruvian troops occupied a strip of territory along this boundary.
They were attacked by Colombian forces and the latter were defeated.
During the World War Colombia remained neutral, but in October, 1917, Congress passed a resolution protesting against the submarine warfare of Germany.