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Domestic Architecture

a branch of the building art which has special reference to houses, villas, and edifices designed primarily for dwelling purposes.

Ancient Greek and Roman. In general all the rooms were grouped on the ground floor, round an atrium or court, and a peristyle or hall, which two portions of the house had he most importance attached to them, because they constituted the favorite spot in summer on account of the breeze, and in winter on account of the sun. Both the Roman and Greek houses consisted of two divisions, but the meaning and employment of these divisions did not coincide; for whereas in Greek houses the front part constituted the andronitis or men's apartments, in Roman houses it formed the public part of the building, in which clients used to wait upon their patrons.

The back part, on the contrary, was intended for the residence and real dwell- DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE ing-rooms of the family; while in the Greek houses the back was the gynaikonitis, or apartments for the women and domestics.

The atrium, or court, formed the central part of the front of the house and the peristyle, or hall, the central part of the bac back, both being open to the air. Round these the rooms were grouped , and from these principally they derived pally they derived their light. Behind were sleeping-rooms, and the triclinium, or the cubicula, or dining-room, which was quite open to the peristyle. ad Norman. The towns and ordinary houses of the Normans were entirely built of wood. Their castles, having but that of defense, aimed at nothing but strength in their plan or construction. The principal feature was always the keep or donjon, which contained the apartments of the lord of the castle, and was also meant to be the last refuge of the garrison if the outer works were forced.

The keep was usually raised on an artificial mound, or placed on the edge of a precipice. The windows were dows were few, and little more than very high up, or turned to the court.

The whole fortress was defended defended by a moat.

English. Like the Saxons the Normans had built almost entirely in wood or timber frame-work, houses of stone being the exception. The troubled state the country, however, led to the erection of tion of numerous strong stone buildings . Gradually, as civilization improved improved, the necessity for defense deof Edward I. to introduce and encourage the arts in England by bringing over choice workmen and artists from France led to a marked change in the style of architecture. The close of the 17th century brought with it a taste for a return to classical models, and an attempt was made to work out a national style comto some extent the characteristics of the Tudor and the Classical. This is commonly known as "Queen Anne" style.

The buildings are generally of brick, solid and heavy. The domestic archiof the Georgian era is a very debased imitation of the Classical. In the present day there is no essentially chararchitectural style. American. As a matter of course, in the earlier years of the existence of the Republic the architectural styles were drawn almost exclusively from English sources, and up to the outbreak of the Civil War, except in very few instances, the country did not contain any archiof distinctive features. But with the return of peace and prosperity the arts began to flourish, and great atten- DOMESTIC SERVICE tion was bestowed upon the construction and ornamentation of domestic buildings. Numerous styles have appeared, had their day, and then given way in rapid succession to others.

These latter DOMESTIC SERVICE. Work done form duties assigned to them. It is gen- erally held to include cooks, housein the house by servants hired to perthe house by servants hired to pererally held to include keepers , waiting-maids, butlers, chaufcooks , housein the United States were the negro feurs, nurses, etc.

The earliest servants transportation to the Colonies by becomslaves and those who paid for their ing for a certain number of years servants to the people who paid their passage money. known as redemptioners. In the North after the Revolution this class was reby the negro slaves. Up until the Civil placed by the free laborers, in the South War the relation of the household servant to his or her employer was a very democratic one. cities the "help" sat at the same table, Except in the larger and were generally treated as the social equals of the family employing them.

No badges of service such as a cap or livery were worn and the personal elelargely. When, however, large numbers ment entered into the service very of unskilled laborers from foreign lands began to arrive in the United States this state of affairs was altered. From 1845- Chinese unskilled laborers immigrated 1860 Irish, German, and a little later into the States, and household service was taken up by a great many of them.

Obviously the same conditions of familibetween the family and the servants could not continue, at least not in immigrants stayed. In the Western the Eastern States where the bulk of the section this democratic relationship still Western obtained , and does so to this day in the extreme frontier regions. Another facthe opportunity offered increasingly to tor to be reckoned with in the East was household servants of working in factories and establishments where there are fixed hours of labor and no curtailments of their personal freedom. An increasing distance between the family and the servants was maintained by the wealthy and badges of service again came into period before the Civil War. The workuse, a feature largely unknown in the ing of factors above mentioned was by the World War. An unprecedented stimulated by conditions brought about demand for all sorts of labor was made by the Government and industrial establishments, and wages, until then unheard of , were offered. Large numbers of household servants accepted these offers, and those who did not stayed 26-Vol. III-Cyc DOMESTIC SERVICE only on very remunerative terms. The unrest which succeeded the war did nothing to solve the problem, if indeed it did not augment it. The present condition of the domestic servants in the United States as compared with other classes of labor is certainly good. The wages of a girl or woman doing the work of general housekeeping averages from twelve to fifteen dollars a week, and in addition she secures room and board.

The only unsatisfactory part to the servant is the social inferiority which such a position carries with it and the somewhat longer hours. To remedy this last abuse the "shift" system-allowing each servant to work but eight hours_has been suggested and in some localities been put in force by the very wealthy.

Co-operative housekeeping has been attempted by those whose means are limited, to cope with the problem of securing help. "Community kitchens" supply the food, control heating plants, do away with the necessity of janitor service, while modern electric equipment vastly reduces the time consumed in housework.

In England and on the Continent of Europe the conditions of labor of the household servant are not nearly so good. In most of these countries there is a class bred to service, and members of that class seldom aspire to a higher social status. This is more especially the case the farther eastward one goes in Europe, reaching its climax in nations such as Poland, Rumania, and Hungary, where the personal restrictions on the liberty of the servant remind one of the feudal serf. Prior to the Revolution in Russia much the same condition obtained there. Even in France or Germany the household servants are rather pleased to wear the white caps belonging to their order, while in America it remains one of the distasteful features of domestic service. In Germany at the termination of a servant's employment in the household the employer is obliged to enter a comment in a police book, stating how satisfactory that servant has been. In England domestic servants are hired by the year and the employer is free to discharge immediately and without any notice on the discovery of theft, immorality, extreme incompetence or disobedience. This practically leaves the servant at the mercy of the employer and this feature is one which is characteristic even in the United States. Wages in England and the Continent are considerably below those paid in the States. Seven and eight dollars a week secure the same amount of service in England which twice that amount could scarcely command in America.

DOMINIAN