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Efficiency of Machines

the ratio or percentage of useful work accomplished by any machine in comparison with the total energy consumed or put in.

No machine is or can be 100 per cent efficient, owing to necessary losses by internal friction, energy dissipation, and other causes. The most efficient of all machines so far produced is the electrical transformer, certain types of which have attained 99.6 per cent efficiency.

Large electrical alternators operate at as high as 96 per cent, smaller motors and generators being less efficient. The incandescent electric lamp has an efficiency of only 2 or 3 per cent, considering the production of light to be its only useful work. A large part of its energy is lost in heat. The ordinary steam engine is likewise of low efficiency, efficiency, the best reciprocating engine delivering only about 15 or 16 per cent of the fuel energy. Steam locomotives are only about 4 or 5 per cent efficient. Steam turbines reach as high as 20 per cent, in comparison with water turbines which operate at from EINSTEIN THEORY 75 to 85 per cent perfect. Internal combustion engines, by utilizing the heat energy which is wasted in ordinary coalburning engines, gain an efficiency of about 30 per cent, which is further increased in the case of the combined gas and steam Still engine to from 38 to 41 per cent. The best Diesel four-cycle engine of large size operates at about 36 per cent efficiency.

EGYPT. Negotiations looking to the removal of the British protectorate over Egypt were carried on during 1921 between the British Government and Egyptian representatives. The principal object in the way of a settlement was the British demand to have passage for its troops through Egypt and to maintain such forces in the country as it deemed necessary for the protection of its interests and the interests of foreigners. These demands were rejected by an Egyptian delegation in London (Novem- ber, 1921), and a Nationalist nonber, 1921), and a Nationalist nonco-operative movement in Egypt resulted in leaving the country without a native government. New proposals, however, were made by Lord Allenby, the British High Commissioner, and on Feb. 28, 1922, the British Government announced that the protectorate had been terminated and that Egypt was free to work out her own national development, subject only to the consideration of certain special relations to the British Empire. These relations include (1) security for the communications of the empire, particularly through the Suez Canal; (2) defense of Egypt against foreign aggression; (3) protection of foreign interests and minorities; (4) the guaranteeing of British interests in the Sudan. A proclamation on abolishing the protectorate was issued in Egypt on the same day (Feb. 28), and a new Egyptian Nationalist cabinet was formed March 1 with the object of concluding a treaty with Great Britain. A Britain.

A rescript announcing the sovereignty of Egypt was issued March 15, 1922, and the Sultan was proclaimed king the following day.

EINSTEIN THEORY OF RELA- TIVITY. The scientific theory of relativity had its origin in the effort made in 1887 by the American scientists, A. A.

Michelson and E. W. Morley, to determine the drift of the earth through the ether by means of the velocity of light.

In accordance with the universally accepted laws of mechanics and dynamics as understood since Newton, their data was sufficient for the solution of the problem, and yet only negative results were obtained. Similar experiments in succeeding years yielded like results and EINSTEIN THEORY established the fact that while the accepted Newtonian laws, based on the conception of space and time as absolute, unchanging, and unchangeable entities, held for all ordinary phenomena of nature, they did not explain certain other phenomena na associated in pa particular with the high velocities of light and electrodynamics. Starting from this basis, Albert Einstein and others developed the theory of relative time and space, discarding the conception of absolute time and space and treating these as relative to moving systems. For instance, the mass of a body by this theory is not to be regarded as fixed and unchangeable, but as varying in relation to its motion and position. Einstein conceived of space and times in terms of fourth-dimensional mathematics, and in 1917 announced the principle of general or universal relativity, applying the theory to all natural phenomena. By elaborate mathematical calculations he devised laws for hitherto unexplained phenomena of the universe and made predictions of other things that would be found if his theory was correct. At least two confirmations or h-dimensional apparent confirmations have thus far been recorded, while a third is in doubt.

The first confirmation relates to variations in the motion of the planet Mercury at perihelion. These variations have long been known to astronomers, but could not be accounted for by the Newtonian laws of gravitation, which explained all the other planetary motions. The Einstein equations, based on the theory of relativity, have been found to account for them almost exactly. A second confirmation relates to the deflection of rays of light from the stars passing close to the sun. The existence and amount of such deflection was calculated by Einstein in accordance with his laws and a test was made by English astronomers on May 29, 1919, during a total eclipse of the sun, the result being a remarkable, although not quite complete, verification of the Einstein prediction.

On the other hand, a more recent prediction relating to the displacement of spectrum lines in a gravitational field has thus far failed to be confirmed decisively.

Astronomers differ in their observations and opinions.

The Einstein theory, it should be remarked, is not a denial of the Newtonian laws. It may rather be described as including them within a more general law, a law which would explain all the phenomena of mechanics and dynamics, whereas Newton's laws have been found inadequate to explain certain phenomena of very rapid motion. The Einstein equations for the motions of the planets ENGLAND AND WALES differ little from those obtained by Newton; but this difference, although small, is nevertheless sufficient to account for the puzzling variations in the motions of Mercury, and to that extent at least the Einstein theory appears to be a closer approximation to a universal law.

ELECTRON THEORY. It was formorely thought that the atoms which compose the molecules of matter were the ultimate in their nature, unalterable, and indivisible. Many recent discoveries and investigations, however, have established the fact (now generally, if not universally, accepted) that the atom itself is a veritable astronomical system in miniature, being composed of an electrically positive nucleus attended by a number of negative particles or electrons which normally remain associated with it, but which escape under certain conditions, as in radioactivity, or which may be artificially forced to leave it, as in the production of cathode rays or of electrical charges and currents. The positive nucleus remains at all times with the atom of which it forms the central force. The electrons, whose mass is now estimated to be about 1-1,800 of that of a hydrogen atom, are apparently miniature vortices in the ether, or, in other words, "electricity in as original a form as man has yet identified it." The Electron Theory was first advanced principally by J. J.

Thomson of Cambridge University. It is widely applied in scientific investigation.

ENGLAND AND WALES. The total population of England and Wales, by the census of June, 1921, was 37,885,242, an increase of less than 5 per cent. over the population in 1911. The increase in numbers, 1,814,750, was the smallest since 1811, due in large part to the fall of the birth rate during the war years, 1915- 1918, and to the war losses in the British armies. Of the 1921 population, 18,082,- 220 were males and 19,803,022 were females. The population of Wales alone was 2,206,712. Following is the list of cities and towns in England and Wales having a population of over 50,000 in 1921:

TOWN Population 1921 1911 4,483,249 4,521,685 919,438 840,202 803,118 753,353 London*.

Birmingham.

Liverpool..

Manchester.

Sheffield..

Leeds.

Bristol...

West Ham...

Kingston upon Hull. 730,551 714,385 490,724 460,183 458,320 454,155 377,061 357,114 300,905 289,030 287,013 277,991 * City and Administrative County.

FAR EASTERN QUESTIONS Population FARMS OF U. S.

Population TOWN TOWN Bradford. 285,979 288,458 Rotherham.

Newcastle upon Tyne. 274,955 266,603 Ealing.

Nottingham..

Portsmouth..

Stoke upon Trent Leicester.

Salford..

Plymouth. 262,658 259,901 Edmonton. 247,343 233,573 Hastings. 240,440 234,534 Lincoln... 234,190 227,222 Darlington... 234,150 231,357 Stockton on Tees 68,045 62,483 67,753 61,222 66,809 64,797 66,020 61,346 65,866 57,328 64,150 58,521 66,496 61,145 209,857 207,449 Tynemouth. 63,786 58,816 Cardiff.. 200,262 182,259 Eastbourne. 62,030 52,542 Croydon. 190,877 169,551 Wimbledon. 61,451 54,966 Bolton.. 178,678 180,851 Acton..... 61,314 57,497 Willesden. 165,669 154,214 Chesterfield.. 61,236 55,309 Rhondda. 162,729 152,781 Enfield.... 60,743 56,338 Southampton. 160,997 145,096 Great Yarmouth. 60,710 55,905 Sunderland. 159,100 151,159 Exeter... 59,608 59,092 Swansea.. 157,561 143,997 Cambridge. 59,262 55,812 Tottenham 146,695 137,418 Luton. 57,077 49,978 Birkenhead. 145,592 130,794 Oxford... 57,052 53,048 Oldham.. 145,001 147,483 Bury.. 56,426 59,040 East Ham 143,304 133,487 Hendon. 56,014 38,80.6 Brighton.. 142,427 131,237 Dudley. 55,908 51,079 Middlesborough. 131,103 119,910 Aberdare. 55,010 50,830 Derby 129,836 123,410 Swindon.. 54,920 50,751 Leyton..

Coventry... 128,432 124,735 Dewsbury. 128,205 106,349 Doncaster. 54,165 53,351 Walthamstow. 127,441 54,038 52,252 Blackburn.. 53,670 50,614 Gateshead. 124,514 52,892 51,511 Stockport. 52,600 52,225 51,330 50,035 50,716 49,369 Norwich.

Preston.

South Shields. 116,667 108,647 Huddersfield.. 110,120 107,821 Southend on Sea. 106,021 70,676 Burnley.

St. Helens... 102,675 Wolverhampton 102,373 Blackpool.. 99,640 Halifax. 99,129 Walsall. 96,964 Newport (Mon.) 92,369 Reading.... 92,274 Bournemouth. 91,770 Northampton. 90,923 Rochdale.

Wallasey.

Wigan..

Hornsey Ilford...

York...

Grimsby.

Merthyr Tydfil.

Ipswich.

Warrington.

Southport.

Bootle...

Smethwick Barrow in Furness. 74,254 63,770 West Bromwich. 124,580 Gillingham. 126,630 133,052 Barnsley 116,917 Wakefield. 123,315 119,870 Carlisle... 120,653 121,490 Gloucester. 117,426 117,088 Woodgreen. 54,052 48,455 103,175 106,765 ERZBERGER, MATTHIAS, German 60,746

96,551 statesman and public official, was born

95,328 at Buttenhausen, Württemberg, Ger- 101,553 many, Sept. 20, 1875. He received an ele- 92,115 mentary education and entered politics 87,693 early in life. From 1903 to his death in 79,183 1921 he was a member of the German 90,064 Reichstag, being leader of the progressive Clericals. In October, 1918, he be-

89,152 came vice-chancellor of Germany and 90,807 90,721 78,504 89,447 82,329 80,161 87,691 84,592 was the head of the German delegation 85,191

78,188 which signed the armistice terminating 84,052 82,282

74,659 the World War. In 1919 he was ap-

80,990 pointed Minister of Finance and by his

72,166 drastic taxation proposals became the

69,643 object of bitter attack and villification on

69,876 the part of the reactionary and capitalist 79,383 76,811 76,508 76,644 75,757 70,694 classes of Germany. The agitation against 73,761 West Hartlepool. 68,689 Bath. 68,648 68,332 him finally resulted in his murder by re- 63,923 actionary assassins in the Black Forest, 69,173 August 26, 1921.

F FAR EASTERN QUESTIONS. (See Central States the number of farms de- WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.) FARMS OF U. S. The number of farms in the United States on Jan. 1, 1920, was 6,448,343, an increase of 86,841 over the number in 1910. In New England and the Middle Atlantic and North creased between 1910 and 1920, as dià also the acreage in most of these States, while the greatest gains took place place in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States.

The average size of farms in the United States as a whole increased from 138 to 148 acres, the greatest percentage of gain