Europe
the smallest of the great continents, but the most important in the history of civilization for the last 2,000 years. It forms a huge peninsula projecting from Asia, and is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean; on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean; on the S. by the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus range; on the E. by the Caspian Sea, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains. The most northerly point on the mainland is Cape Nordkyn, in Lapland, lat. 71°6'; the most southerly points are Punta da Tarifa, lat. 36° N., in the Strait of Gibraltar, and Cape Matapan, lat. 36° 17′, which terminates Greece. The most westerly point is Cape Roca in Portugal, in lon. 9° 28′ W., while Ekaterinburg is in lon. 60° 36' E. From Cape Matapan to North Cape is a direct distance of 2,400 miles, from Cape St. Vincent to Ekaterinburg, N. E. by E., 3,400 miles; area of the continent, about 3,800,000 square miles. Great Britain and Ireland, Iceland, Nova Zembla, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Crete, the Ionian and the Balearic Islands are the chief islands of Europe. The shores are very much indented, giving Europe an immense length of coast line (estimated at nearly 50,000 miles). The chief seas or arms of the sea are: The White Sea on the N.; the North Sea or German Ocean, on the W., from which branches off the great gulf or inland sea known as the Baltic; the English Channel, be tween England and France; the Mediterranean, communicating with the Atlantic by the Strait of Gibraltar (at one point only 19 miles wide); the Adriatic and Archipelago, branching off from the Mediterranean, and the Black Sea, connected with the Archipelago through the Hellespont, Sea of Marmora, and Bosporus.
Surface. The mountains form several distinct groups or systems of very different geological dates, the loftiest mountain masses being in the S. central region. The Scandinavian mountains in the N. W., to which the great northern Vol. IV-Cyc-E EUROPE peninsula owes its form, extend above 900 miles from the Polar Sea to the S. point of Norway. The highest summits are about 8,000 feet. The Alps, the highest mountains in Europe (unless Mount Elbruz in the Caucasus is claimed as European), extend from the Mediterranean first in a northerly and then in greatest elevation in Mont Blanc (15,an easterly direction, and attain their 781 feet), Monte Rosa, and other summits. Branching off from the Alps, though not geologically connected with them, are the Apennines, which run S.
E. through Italy, constituting the central ridge of the peninsula. The highest summit is Monte Corno (9,541 feet). Mount Vesuvius, the celebrated volcano in the S. of the peninsula, is quite distinct from the Apennines. By southeastern extensions the Alps are connected with the Balkan and the Despoto- Dagh of the southeastern peninsula of Europe. Among the mountains of southwestern Europe are several massive chains, the loftiest summits being in the Pyrenees, and in the Sierra Nevada in the S. of the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in the former, La Maladetta or Mount Maudit, has an elevation of 11,165 feet; Mulahacen, in the latter, is 11,703 feet, and capped by perpetual snow. West and N. W. of the Alps are the Cevennes, Jura, and Vosges; N. and N. E., the Harz, the Thüringerwald Mountains, the Fichtelgebirge, the Erzgebirge and Böhmerwaldgebirge.
Farther to the E. the Carpathian chain incloses the great plain of Hungary, attaining an elevation of 8,000 or 8,500 feet. The Ural Mountains between Europe and Asia reach the height of 5,540 feet. Besides Vesuvius other two volcanoes are Etna in Sicily, and Hecla in Iceland. A great part of northern and eastern Europe is level. The "great plain" of north Europe occupies part of France, western and northern Belgium, Holland, the northern provinces of Germany, and the greater part of Russia. The other great plains of Europe are the plain of Lombardy and the plain of Hungary. Part of southern and southeastern Russia consists of steppes. Rivers and Lakes. The main European watershed runs in a winding direction from S. W. to N. E., at its northeastern extremity being of very slight elevation. From the Alps descend some of the largest of the European rivers, the Rhine, the Rhône, and the Po, while the Danube, a still greater stream, rises in the Black Forest N. of the Alps. The Volga, which enters the Caspian Sea, an inland sheet without outlet, is the longest of European rivers, having a direct length of nearly 1,700 miles, in- EUROPE Celtic comes the Teutonic race, compre- hending the Germanic and Scandinavian branches. The former includes the Gerhending the Germanic and Scandinavian branches. The former includes the Germans, the Dutch, and the English. The Scandinavians are divided into Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians. To the E., E. in general, of the Teutonic race, though sometimes mixed with it, come the Slavonians, that is, the Russians, the Poles, the Czechs or Bohemians, the Ser- vians, Croatians, etc. In the S. and S. E. of Europe are the Greek and Latin peoples, the latter comprising the Italians, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. All the above peoples are regarded as belonging to the Indo-European or belonging to the Indo-European Aryan stock. To the Mongolian stock belong the Turks, Finns, Lapps, and Magyars or Hungarians, all immigrants into Europe in comparatively recent times. The Basques at the western extremity of the Pyrenees are a people tremity of the Pyrenees are a people whose affinities have not yet been determined. The total population of Europe is about 425,000,000. these prior to 1921, except Upper Si- EUROPE these prior to 1921, except Upper Sito return to Denmark, and East Prussia preferred German as against Polish man Republic. North Schleswig voted elected to be reincorporated into the Gerto return to Denmark, and East Prussia preferred German as against Polish absorption.
By the Treaty of St. Germain, signed Hungary ceased to exist. Its place was Sept. 10, 1919, the monarchy of Austria- Hu taken by the republics of Austria, Hunareas of its former territory passed into gary, and Czecho-Slovakia, while large Treaty of Neuilly signed on Nov. 27, 1919, Bulgaria suffered a loss of By the the hands of Italy, Rumania, and Jugo- Nov. on these couries. articles or territory. Bulgarian Thrace was given 27, 1919, Bulgaria suffered a loss of territory. Bulgarian Thrace was given dered a strip of territory including the to Greece. To Jugoslavia was surrentown of Strumitsa and two small porern Bulgarian front. The total area of tions of territory belonging to the westterritory lost was about 2,000 square miles.
Political Divisions. The lines of division of Europe were greatly changed and sion of Europe were greatly changed and War. As a result of the treaty following the conclusion of the war, new nations were established. This included Jugoslavia, Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, Germany lost, in addition to 5,600 square miles of territory, with nearly 2,000,000 inhabitants, by the recession to France of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, fields, to compensate in part for the coal mines of northern France destroyed or crippled during the war.
Within 15 years from the coming into effect of the Peace Treaty, the inhabitants of this basin are to determine by plebiscite whether they shall remain under the control of the League of Nations, bewhether they shall remain under the Germany. Germany was also compelled to surrender to Poland the vast area with a population of 6,000,000, and, in order to provide Poland with an outlet to the sea, Germany was compelled to order to provide Poland with an outlet which became the free city of Danzig under the protection of the League of Nations. The Memel district, northeast of East Prussia, was given in charge of under the protection of the League of ing the final settlement of their sovereignty. of East Prussia, was given in charge of Peace Treaty designated these areas for plebiscite to determine their eventual ereignty.
Prussia, one in northern Schleswig, southern Schleswig, Holstein, and Upper Silesia. Plebiscites were held in all name.
Turkey, by the Treaty of Sèvres, became in Europe scarcely more than a Its European territory included only a small tract of land west of Constantinople, and the city itself. The Dardanelles, the Bosporus, and the shores of the Sea of Marmora were placed mission. Turkish Thrace was awarded to Greece. Twelve islands formerly belonging to Turkey, known as the Spo- rades, were awarded to Italy, who, on the same day, ceded all the group with the exception of Rhodes, to Greece. rades, were awarded to Italy, who, on the exception of Rhodes, to Greece.
The Russian empire, as the result of area of territory from which new states were formed. These included the repubthe revolution, was deprived of a great were formed. These included the republics of Finland, the Baltic states of Esthonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and a large territory which went to help form the republic of Poland. Montenegro ceased to exist as an independent power and became a part of the kingdom of Jugoslavia. Albania had declared its independence in 1917, but its boundaries had not been established at the beginning of 1921.
Italy gained, as a result of the war, ning of 1921. including the Trentino region, Gorizia, and the Istrian peninsula, together with mated area of this territory is between the great seaport of Trieste. The esti- 15,000 and 18,000 square miles, with nearly 2,000,000 inhabitants. Italy also gained the administration of the island of Rhodes and several other small islands.
Greece made great territorial gains.
In addition to the acquisition of Thrace EUROPE and many islands in the Ægean Sea, she also assumed administration of the Smyrna district in Asia Minor, with a proviso that a plebiscite at the end of five years shall determine whether or not it shall remain permanently in the hands of Greece.
Rumania profited greatly in territory. She was awarded the province of Bessarabia, formerly a part of Russia, the former Austrian crownland of Bukowina, together with Transylvania, a part of Banat, and other provinces from Hungary. By this acquisition Rumania became the largest country of the Balkan states, with an area equal to the combined areas of Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, and Austria, with a population, in 1919, of 12,500,000.
Ukraine, formerly one of the richest provinces of Russia, declared itself an independent republic. Its boundaries are vague. It is claimed to have an area of about 200,000 square miles, with a population of 30,000,000. Its independence had not been acknowledged at the beginning of 1921.
History. Europe was probably first peopled from Asia, from Asia, but at what date we know not. The first authentic history begins in Greece at about 776 B. C.
Greek civilization was at its most flourishing period about 430 в. c. After Greece came Rome, which, by the early part of the Christian era, had conquered Spain, Greece, Gaul, Helvetia, Germany between the Danube and the Alps, Illyria, Dacia, etc.
With the decline of the Roman empire a great change in the political constitution of Europe was produced by the universal migration of the northern nations. The Ostrogoths and Lombards settled in Italy, the Franks in France, the Visigoths in Spain, and the Anglo- Saxons in South Britain, reducing the inhabitants to subjection, or becoming incorporated with them. Under Charlemagne (771-814) a great Germanic empire was established, so extensive that the kingdoms of France, Germany, Italy, Burgundy, Lorraine, and Navarre were afterward formed out of it. About this time the northern and eastern nations of Europe began to exert an influence in the affairs of Europe. The Slavs, or Slavonians, founded kingdoms in Bohemia, Poland, Russia, and the N. of Germany; the Magyars appeared in Hungary, and the Normans agitated all Europe, founding kingdoms and principalities in England, France, Sicily, and the East. The Crusades and the growth of the Ottoman power are among the principal events which influenced Europe from the 12th to the 15th century. The conquest of Constantinople by the