Frampton
SIR GEORGE JAMES. a British sculptor. He studied under W. S. Frith and entered the Royal Academy schools in 1881. In 1887 he won Gold Medal and Travelling Studentship and since then has won many medals and other honors in several countries . Has executed many memorials and statues, and statues , including that of Queen Victoria for Calcutta, Southport, St. Helens , Newcastleon-Tyne, Winnipeg, and Leeds. Among his other works are the terra-cotta decoration on the Constitutional Club, London; the sculpture on the Glasgow Art Galleries and Lloyd's Register, London; the entrance to Electra House, Moorgate Street, London; spandrels at the entrance of the Victoria and Albert Museum; figures on the spires of St. Mary's , Oxford; saints on the shrine of William of Wykeham, Winchester Cathedral; and the Pyrenees, that separate it from Spain; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean.
By the terms of the Peace Treaty with Germany signed on June 28, 1919, was transferred to Alsace-Lorraine France, to date from the armistice of November 11, 1918. The districts of Lower Alsace, Upper Alsace and Lorraine became the Departments of Bas- Rhin, Alsace; Haut-Rhin; and Moselle.
The total area added to France was 5,605 square miles, with a population in addition of 1,874,014, making the total area 212,659 square miles and the population 41,475,523. Topography-Generally, France may be said to lie in a gently descending slope between the mountains and the sea. The principal mountains are the Alps, designated in their various_parts as the Maritime Alps, between France and Italy; the Cottian Alps , bounding the province of Savoy; the Graian Alps, between France and Switzerland the Pennine Alps, reaching to St. Gotthard. Branch ranges of the Alps in the interior, make the whole country more or less mountainous. Of these spurs the Alps of Valais, Savoy, Dauphiné, and Faucigny, and the Great Chartreuse group, are the most important . Next in importance to the Alps are the Pyrenees, across nearly the entire Spanish boundary, and then N. nearly 300 miles. 300 miles .
This range, called the Cévennes Mountains, is continued by the Côte d'Or. The Faucilles connect the Côte d'Or with the Vosges range on the Swiss frontier .
In the interior are the mountains of Limousin, and the Aubrac system. Some of the highest peaks are famous, Mt. Blanc, 15,776 feet; Mt. Cenis, noted for the great tunnel that pierces it; St. Gotthard and Mt. Viso, 12,585 feet, of the Alps; and Pique d'Etats, 10,302 feet; Pic d'Carlitte, 10,203 feet; Néthou , 11,168 feet; and Mount Perdu, 10,995 feet, of the Pyrenees. The Seine, Loire, Garonne, Loire, Garonne , Rhine, Meuse, Rhone, and Scheldt are the principal rivers of the country. Some of the chief affluents are the Maine and Allier, flowing into the Loire; the Dordogne, that joins the Garonne to form the Gironde; the Sambre, flowing into FRANCE the Meuse; the Moselle, flowing into the Rhine; and the Saône, flowing into the Rhone. France has over 1,500 miles of sea-coast, of which 395 is Mediterranean, 584 Atlantic, and 572 washed by the North Sea, English Channel, and Dover Straits. The principal ports are Havre, at the mouth of the Seine; Brest on the W. extremity of Brittany; Nantes, on the Loire estuary; Bordeaux, on the Garonne, having the Gironde estuary for a harbor; and Toulon on the Mediterranean. The Atlantic coast is mostly bold and rocky. The principal outlying islands are the Channel Islands in Bay St. Michael. The island of Corsica, in the Mediterranean, belongs to France.
Agriculture.-France is essentially an agricultural country of great richness and fertility. There were in 1912 nearly 100,000,000 acres available for cultivation, and of this about 60,000,000 acres were under crops. The war area included some of the richest agricultural land in the country and this, for more than four years, was practically untouched, and after the conclusion of the war remained in such condition that it will be probably useless for cultivation for many years. The arable ground torn up by shell fire and troops was about 9,925,000 acres. The fact that practically all the men available were engaged in the armies or in military services, threw the burden of agricultural cultivation on the women, girls, and boys. In spite of this fact the production of agricultural products continued to an amazing extent. The decrease in production, however, is shown by comparative figures. There were planted to wheat in 1914 6,060,000 hectares (a hectare is equal to 2.47 acres); in 1919 4,579,000 hectares, and in 1920 4,896,000 hectares. There were planted in rye in 1914 1,050,000 hectares; in 1919 827,000; and in 1920 906,000. In 1914 there were planted to oats 3,590,000 hectares; in 1919 2,758,- 000; and in 1920 3,014,000. France is a great wine producing country. The production of wine in 1919 was as great as that in the pre-war period, amounting to 1,132,161,000 gallons. The Germans removed from France a great number of cattle and horses. The cattle taken by them numbered 523,000 head; the horses and mules, 367,000; and the sheep and goats, 465,000 head. According to the terms of the Peace Treaty these animals were to be replaced. In 1920 74,000 head of cattle, 4,400 horses and mules, and 43,000 sheep and goats were replaced.
Mineral Production. Prior to the World War there were 41,638 mines and quarries, employing 372,517 workers.
FRANCE The annual yield of the mines was valued at 829,458,262 francs and of the quarries 305,955,651 francs. During the war the coal area was directly in the line of military operations and the coal mines were not worked during that time.
The systematic destruction of the coal mines was carried on by the Germans.
The production of coal before the war was 42,000,000 tons. The production in 1920 was about 2,000,000 tons a month.
By the terms of the Peace Treaty Germany is to deliver to France a specified amount of coal a month, and France has practical possession of the Sarre Basin.
See SARRE BASIN.
The iron industry was of great importance during the war. There were in operation in 1914 72 blast furnaces, and in 1920 there were about 17 operated.
The iron and steel industry in the invaded districts represented 85 per cent. of the total French production before the war. In 1920 this was being re-established to about 50 per cent., except the heavy steel works, of which about 14 per cent. had been restored. Of the rolling mills 3½ per cent. had been restored. The rolling mills were dismounted and machinery taken to Germany. According to the terms of the Peace Treaty this must be restored to France.
Commerce. The commercial life of France was entirely disorganized as a result of the World War. In 1917 the imports were valued at 16,311,000,000 francs and the exports to 3,837,000,000 francs. During the first half of 1919 the imports exceeded the exports by 10,000,- 000,000 francs, while the imports during that period exceeded by 2,389,000,000 francs those during the same period in 1918. In spite of this enormous increase in value, the quantity had slightly diminished. This decrease was in material and manufactured products, while in food products there was an increase.
As a result of the rise of prices the value of the exports, in spite of the falling off in quantity was nearly equal to that of 1913. The enormous rise of price was shown by the fact that the quantity had diminished by more than 500 per cent. The imports of food for the first eight months of 1919 amounted to 5,463,- 270,000 francs, and the total imports for the eight months of that year amounted to 18,475,706,000 francs. This was an increase of about 4,000,000,000 francs over the same period of 1918. The imports greatly exceeded the exports, and this continued throughout the year. The imports from Jan. 1 to Nov. 30, 1919, amounted to 25,336,978,000 francs, while the exports amounted to 6,223,448,000 francs, or a deficit of about 19,000,000,- 000 francs. This condition is explained, L FRANCE by the fact that nearly all French ex- 15,000 pupils. Professional and techniports fall under the head of luxuries, cal instruction is provided in profesof luxuries, for which it was difficult to find a market. The total imports for the first five months of 1920 amounted to 13,041,000 , - 000, while the exports amounted to 5,- 970,000,000 francs. The chief articles of import are coal and coke, cast iron and steel, cereals, arms and munitions, chemical products and machinery . The chief articles of export are textiles , raw silk and yarn, leather, chemical products , and paper.
Transportation. There were prior to the World War, about 25,000 miles of railway open for traffic. During the war the railroads were greatly disorganized and were used chiefly for war purposes.
During the period of the war 1,400 miles of principal line were practically destroyed, while 1,480 miles of branch lines were destroyed. By 1920 the principal lines had been entirely repaired, while half of the branch lines had also been restored to use. In 1919 measures were passed providing for an increased efficiency in the operation of roads and a satisfactory organization of the great railroad systems. During 1919-1920 extraordinary efforts were made to restore normal conditions of operation of the railroads, especially of the battle area where they had suffered most severely.
The great canal system also suffered greatly during the war. About 1,000 miles of canal were destroyed, of which 485 miles had been repaired by 1920. by 1920 . 32,000 miles of roads were also destroyed. Of this 10,000 miles were repaired in part and 1,122 miles completely restored in 1920.
Education. The public schools constitute the University of France and are divided into primary, secondary , and superior. Before the war there existed 6,445 schools. Of these, 5,345 had been re-established in 1920. The total number of pupils of school age is 6,000,000.
Of this about 3,000,000 are enrolled in the public schools. There are about 70,- 000 schools and 150,000 teachers. Secondary instruction is supplied by the lycées and by the communes in the colleges, and by associations and private individuals in free establishments. There are about 120 lycées, with about 60,000 pupils, and about 200 communal colleges with about 30,000 pupils. The higher education is supplied by the state and the universities and special schools .
There are 16 universities in France.
They are as follows: Aix-en-Provence, Besançon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont- Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon , Montpellier, Nancy, Paris, Poitiers, , ellier, Nancy, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, Strasbourg and Toulouse. There were in the universities in 1917 about Vol. IV-Cyc-M FRANCE sional schools.
Religion. There is no religion recognized by the state. Under the law of December 9, 1905, the churches were separated from the state, and the adherents of all creeds were authorized to form associations for public worship . All buildings actually used for public worship and as dwellings were made over to associations for public worship . There in France 17 archbishops and 68 bishops of the Roman Catholic Church.
The Associations law, passed July 1, July July 1, 1901, requires religious communities to be authorized by the state and no monastic association can be authorized without a special law in each particular case. The prevailing religion is Roman Catholic.
War Destruction and Reconstruction. - The following figures are prepared by André Tardieu. The population driven from their homes by the war amounted to 2,728,000. Those returned in 1920 numbered 2,023,000. There were destroyed 4,068 municipal governments , of which 4,006 had been re-established in 1920. The dwelling houses damaged or wholly destroyed numbered 574,777. Of these, 13,100 had been rebuilt and 178,- 500 had been repaired in 1920.
There had been constructed 46,570 temporary houses. The temporary houses and those rebuilt and repaired sheltered 887,000 people. The remainder of the returning population found quarter in the undamaged houses. Factories destroyed numbered 11,500. Those restored to work in 1920 numbered 3,540, and those in process of rebuilding in that year numbered 3,812. Reconstruction was undertaken on a large scale by the government and also by organizations established in the United States and other countries. In many cases towns and cities in the United States undertook reconstruction of cities and towns in France. In spite of these efforts, how- 1921 had ever, the devastated area in 1921 had area in 192 practically been untouched. The French depended in a large measure on the indemnity to be received from Germany for the reconstruction of this area. The delay in receiving any funds from German Government made it necessary to adopt other measures.
The effect of the war on the population is indicated by the fact that the pre-war population was 37,790,000.
There were mobilized 8,410,000 men out of a total subject to mobilization (19 to 50 years) of 9,420,000, or a mobilization of 89.5 per cent. of the available number. There were killed during war 1,364,000 men or 16 per cent. of FRANCE those mobilized. The total wounded numbered 3,000,000. Of these 740,000 were incapacitated by the loss of an arm, leg, eye, or otherwise.
Finance. The public debt on July 31, 1914, amounted to 27,264,937,331 francs.
The consolidated public debt contracted in France from July 31, 1914, to June 30, 1920, amounted to 92,434,336,500 francs. The funded debt contracted from July 31, 1914, to June 30, 1920, amounted to 19,838,736,000 francs. The floating debt on June 30, 1920, amounted to 71,- 487,930,000 francs. There were advanced from banks sums amounting to 26,020,- 000,000 francs, making a total debt on July 30, 1920, of 247,045,937,831. The Bank of France had on hand gold amounting to 5,558,603,903 francs and of silver, 247,483,930 francs, or a total of 5,806,087,833. The total expenditure in 1919 was 48,793,884,587 francs. Of this 36,675,781,168 francs was for military and special expenditures. The budget for 1920 provided for expenditures amounting to 17,861,140,000 francs. The foreign debt included $2,785,300,000 advanced by the United States Government. Army and Navy. - See ARMY and NAVY.
Colonies. The colonies of France in Asia include French India, French Indo- China, Cochin-China, Annam, Cambodia, Tonking, and the territory of Kwang Chau Wan on the coast of China. In Africa are included Algeria, practically a government of Morocco; French Congo; Madagascar; Mayotte and the Comoro Islands; Réunion; French Somaliland; French West Africa and the Sahara, and Tunis. In America, they include Guadeloupe and dependencies, French Guiana; Martinique, and St. Pierre and Miquelon. In Australasia the colonies are New Caledonia and dependencies, and the French establishments in Oceania.
Government. The government of France is that of a republic, the present republic dating from 1870. The executive and judiciary powers are vested in a President, chosen by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, on joint ballot, and serving for seven years. The legislative body consists of a Senate, onethird of whose number is elected by the Senate itself, and the remainder by special bodies in each department, and in the colonies, and a Chamber of Deputies, the members of which are elected by popular suffrage, one from each arrondissement, and one additional for each 100,000 population or fraction of the same in the arrondissement, in excess of 100,000. The Cabinet of the President is composed of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, of Interior, Justice, War, Marine, Finance, Colonies, Works, Commerce, FRANCE Agriculture, Labor, Liberated Territories, Hygiene, of Assistance and Social Prevision and of Pensions, Awards and War Grants. For administrative purposes France is divided into communes (local units), of which there are 37,946; cantons comprised of communes, 2,899; arrondissements, 362; departments, 90, and provinces, 37. The communes are governed locally by a mayor and municipal council (in the case of Paris, by a President and Vice-President). The cantons, usually comprising 12 communes, have no administrative officers; the arrondissement, usually consisting of 8 cantons, is governed by a sub sub-prefect. The departments, usually comprising 4 arrondissements, are each governed by a prefect, appointed by the President of the Republic. He superintends public order, commands the police, etc. Each department has a local legislative council, elected from the_cantons.
History. France was originally known to the Romans by the name of Transalpine Gaul; but after its conquest by Cæsar it was divided into the four provinces of Provincia Romanorum (Provence), Gallica Aquitanica, Celtica, and Belgica. In the 5th century it was subdivided into 17 provinces, inclusive of all the territory on the E. bank of the Rhine. At this time the Germanic nations began to overrun Gaul; the Visigoths established themselves from the Loire to the Pyrenees, where they established a kingdom that lasted till about 540. Burgundians settled in the E., from the Lake of Geneva to the Rhine, and afterward stretched along the Rhône to the Mediterranean. The independent sovereignty they erected lasted till about 532. The Franks, whose dominion swallowed up those of both the foregoing tribes, had long been settled in the N.; and Pharamond, their chief in 420, is considered the founder of the French monarchy, as he was of the first or Merovingian race of Frankish kings. In 486 Clovis defeated Syagrius, the Roman general, at Soissons, and in 507, by his victory over the Visigoths, he rendered himself master of all the country between the Loire and the Garonne. On the death of Clovis, in 511, his dominions were divided into four kingdoms-those of Paris, Metz, Soissons, and Orleans.
These, however, were reunited in 558.
In 732 Charles Martel defeated the Saracens in the S. of France, and expelled them from the kingdom. Under Pepin and Charlemagne the country was relatively peaceful and prosperous; but after the latter's death things returned to their original state of confusion.
Under his immediate successor France was again divided into four parts, and 2 EN MER Loine R.
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Aups Mirabeau Rians St. Maximin Rograc Aix fartigues Marignane Gardanne Auriol Cognac Compa 3 45 ALPES MARITIMES St. Valier مر Grasse o Callas Fayence Barjols VAR Carces Lorgues Aubagne Brignoles Marseilles Cassis GULF OFC. Couronne THE LION La Cadière La Ciotat Ollioudes Besse Vence Cannes Mentone 4 Mond Carlo Monaco Nice Cagnes Antibes C.d'Antibes Draguignan C. Κρυχ Le Luc Gonfaron Frejus G.of Napoule Agay G.of Frejus C. des Salins Cuers Collobrière St. Tropez Toulon La Seyne C.Sicié GIENS PEN Hyeres I. DE PORQUEROLLES N 42 MEDITERRANEA SEA Gerona Bormes C. Lardier DU LEVANT 1.DE PORT CROSS ILES D'HYERÈS C. Corse 90 Centuri G. of St. Florent St. Floren Algajola Balasco Calvi 5 CHER (To Italy) 4 Rogliano Juri Nonza Bastia Castifão Murato Golu R.
C. Morsetta Calenzana Galeria Porta S.Lorenzo 6 escovato Pero-Caseveochi Calacuccia Piedicroce Cervione G.of Porto Evisa C Rosso Cargese G. of Sagone Corte Piedicorte Soccia Vezzani Salice Bocognano Aleria Sarrola Prunelli Chisonaccia 42 42 C. Feno Ajaccio SANGUINAIRES IS G. of Bastelica Sotaro Sta. Maria Ajaccio Olmeto Pont de G. of Valinco Sartene Zicavo Solenzara Serra di Scop Favone 0 Levie Sta. Lucia Porio Chiappa Pt.
Vecchio CERBICALE 13, Pianottoli 0 10 SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 7 20 SCALE OF KILOMETERS 40 60 80 100 120 140 important towns are shown in heavy face type Railways shown thus Canals Same scale as main map Str. of Bonifacio B 2° 1° D0° E 1° Long. F 2° West G 3° from H Riveso 5° K Lons le Saunier Copyright, L. L. Poates Eng. Co., 1921 Badalona Mataro 8. Martin Barcelona CORSICA C. Feno Bonifacio 0. Pertusato CAVALLO 1. 7 FRANCE the Normans began to ravage its N. provinces; the power of the nobility also rapidly increased and the last sovereign of the Carlovingian dynasty, Louis V. in 986-987, possessed only the town of Laon. His successor, Hugh Capet, Count of Paris and Orleans, the founder of the third race of kings, governed only the Ile-de-France, Picardy, and the Orleannais; the dukes of Normandy, Brittany, Aquitaine, Gascony, Lorraine, and Burgundy, the count of Flanders, Champagne, Vermandois, Toulouse, and several minor seigneurs, shared among them the rest of the modern kingdom.
Vermandois was united to the crown by Philip Augustus; Toulouse and Perche, by Louis IX.; Champagne, in 1274; the Lyonnais, Dauphiny, and Languedoc, in the 14th century; Berri, Normandy, Gascony, Burgundy, Anjou, Maine, and Provence, in the 15th; Bourbonnais, Auvergne, Brittany, Lorraine, and considerable territories in the S. W. in the 16th; and Flanders, Artois, Franche-Comté, and Alsace in the 17th century. While the monarchy gained in consistency and extent, the regal power was making constant advances. At length, under the administration of Richelieu, the nobles were stripped of all power; and there being no other body in the State, with the exception of the parliaments-which had degenerated into little else than courts of law-that enjoyed any constitutional privileges, the power of the crown was raised above control. Under the vigorous, and for a lengthened period prosperous, government of Louis XIV., the royal prerogative arrived at a maximum. During the regency and the subsequent part of the reign of Louis XV., abuses of all sorts multiplied on all hands, and were no longer concealed by the dazzling splendor and magnificence of the preceding period.
Louis XVI., who ascended the throne in 1774, was actuated by the best intentions, but he wanted the firmness of purpose and capacity required in so desperate a crisis. At length, after a variety of futile expedients had been in vain resorted to, it was resolved, in 1789, to hold a meeting of the States- General, which had not been convened since 1614, for effecting the necessary changes and averting a public bankruptcy. This was the commencement of that tremendous revolution which cost Louis XVI. the crown and his life, and destroyed every vestige of the government and institutions that existed when it broke out. The atrocities connected with the Revolution were in wild, but not unnatural excesses of an uninstructed populace that had suddenly FRANCE been emancipated from a state of extreme degradation.
The proscriptions and anarchy by which the Revolution was accompanied continued till Napoleon attained to the supreme direction of affairs. The talents of this extraordinary man were surpassed only by his ambition, which, by overstepping all bounds, precipitated him into enterprises that ultimately led to his overthrow. In 1814 the Bourbons were replaced on the throne; but in 1830 they were re-expelled from the kingdom. The crown was then offered, under conditions, to Louis Philippe, Duc_d'Orleans, by whom it was accepted. He has the merit of having contributed, under very difficult circumstances, to the maintenance, for a lengthened period, of the peace of France and Europe. Under his reign the Revolution of Feb. 24, 1848, broke out, and resulted in the establishment of the republic, with a provisional government.
A new constitution having been voted by a "Constituent Assembly" of 900 members. Prince Louis Napoleon was elected head of the republic, for four years, by by 5,562,843 votes, on Dec. 10, 1848. The prince President dissolved the National Assem Assembly by a coup d'état, Dec. 2, 1851, and having remodeled the constitution, appealed to universal suffrage, which declared him president for 10 years, by 7,439,216 votes, on Dec. 21, 1851. By a third vote, Louis Napoleon was chosen Emperor of France, by 7,- 864,216 against 31,145 votes, on Nov. 22, 1852, and assumed the title of Napoleon III., Emperor of the French, on Dec. 1, 1852. For the history of France since 1852, see NAPOLEON.
The government of Napoleon III. was in all essentials an absolute monarchy.
The legislative powers and the suffrage were entirely within his control. In order to quiet the dissatisfaction of the people, Napoleon entered upon an aggressive foreign gn policy. He made an alliance with England and France against Russia in 1854, and the successful outcome of the Crimean War was a personal triumph for him. Paris became the diplomatic capital of Europe, following the Congress of Paris in 1856. Napoleon, in 1859, in the rôle of the champion of the oppressed nationalities, aided Italy against Austria and obtained as a reward possession of Savoy and Nice.
His attempts at intervention in Poland in 1863 and in Schleswig-Holstein in the following year, were, however, unsuccessful. Far more disastrous, however, was his invasion of Mexico and the establishment there of an empire under Maximilian of Austria. The failure of this empire and the execution of FRANCE Maximilian were fatal blows at Napoleon's prestige. This was followed by the defeat of Austria in 1866 and the rise of Prussia, which threatened to deprive France of the leading position in European politics. While there was economic prosperity in France and great industrial development, there were many signs of dissatisfaction. Opposition to the Empire continued to grow until in 1869 Napoleon was obliged to grant a responsible ministry. It soon appeared, however, that this was in reality without power and that the personal government of the Emperor continued. An appeal to the people failed and the necessity of regaining his influence led Napoleon to enter once more upon an aggressive course of action in foreign affairs. This issue of the succession to the vacant Spanish throne precipitated the crisis between France and Prussia, whose foreign policy was now conducted by the genius of Bismarck. Napoleon, deceived by the false reports of his ministers in relation to the efficiency of the French army, permitted himself to be carried into the war with Prussia, which had been silently preparing for many years for such a conflict. The Franco- Prussian War was of short duration.
The succession of defeats for the French ended on Sept. 2, 1870, in the surrender of Sedan. On Sept. 4, the Emperor and his descendants were declared forever excluded from the throne and France was proclaimed a republic.
Following a period of disorder the first National Assembly met in February, 1871, at Bordeaux, and the Third Republic was formed. A treaty of peace was signed with Germany at Versailles on Feb. 26 and was quickly ratified by the French Government. France was obliged to cede Alsace and parts of Lorraine to Prussia, and pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs. Not until this indemnity was paid, in September, 1873, were the Prussian troops withdrawn from French territory. There were violent outbreaks of the commune in 1871, but these were suppressed. On Aug. 31 of that year, Thiers received from the National Assembly the title of President of the Republic. He resigned in 1873 and Marshal MacMahon was elected for a period of seven years. The National Assembly in 1873 adopted laws providing for the constitution of the National Legislature. MacMahon resigned in 1879 and was succeeded by Jules Grévy. In spite of attempts at the revival of the monarchy, republican sentiment continued to grow. The constitution was revised in 1884. France, in 1881, entered upon a foreign colonial policy by establishing a protectorate over Tunis. This FRANCE a was followed in 1883 by the enforcement of a claim of certain rights over Madagascar, which in 1896 became a French possession. In 1884 the war with China resulted in the establishment of French protectorate over Annam and Tonking. M. Grévy was re-elected in 1885, but resigned in 1887. He was succeeded by Sadi Carnot, in whose administration occurred the Panama Canal scandal.
In 1889 there was a formidable attempt to overthrow the republic by a union of all parties favoring a monarchy. This was under the leadership of General Boulanger. After promises of success, the movement failed and the republic continued to grow in strength.
President Carnot was assassinated in 1894 and was succeeded by Casimir- Perier, who in 1895 resigned and was succeeded by Félix Faure. In the latter's administration and that of his successor, Emile Loubet, occurred the famous Dreyfus case, which for a time threatened the downfall of the republic. The chief political tendency of this period was the increase of the Socialist power.
Alexandre Millerand, the leader of the Socialists, at this time first emerged into power. In 1901 the Associations Law brought religious congregations under government supervision. The struggle between the Church and State continued throughout the following years, and ended in the complete separation of the Church and State in France, in 1905.
France had in 1891 formed an alliance with Russia, thus offsetting the importance of the Triple Alliance. This alliance was strengthened throughout the following years and cordial relations were established with Italy. These relations were chiefly due to Théophile Delcassé, who also accomplished in 1904 an agreement with England by which France abandoned certain rights in Newfoundland in return for territorial concessions in west Africa. France also recognized the predominance of Great Britain in Egypt in return for the right of France to maintain order in Morocco.
The defeat of Russia in the war with Japan left France without a strong ally, and Germany seized the opportunity to bring about the dismissal of Delcassé, whose policies were regarded by the German Government as hostile to it. The Algeciras Conference, which met in 1906, gave France certain customs rights on the Algerian frontier. Germany protested in 1908 and 1911 that the French sphere of influence was too extensive.
In the latter year the German Emperor sent a warship to Agadir to protect German interests. France, however, was strongly supported by England, and Ger FRANCE many was obliged to give way and to recognize rights of France in Morocco.
In return of this recognition France ceded to Germany 112,000 square miles of the French Congo. In 1912 France secured a practical protectorate over Morocco.
The economic history of France is marked during this period by the rapid growth of industrial unionism and the development of the theory of direct action (See SYNDICALISM). General strikes occurred in 1909 and in 1910, but these were suppressed by the prompt action of Premier Briand who shattered the railroad strike by threatening military punishment. Raymond Poincaré was elected President in 1913. Threatening conditions in Europe, especially in Germany, led to demands for an increase in the size of the army, and this was accomplished.
During the closing months of 1913, disturbances in Alsace-Lorraine, particularly in Zabern, increased the growing hostility between France and Germany.
Germany's policy of aggressiveness and militarism foreshadowed the outbreak of the World War. For an account of France's part in this great struggle, see WORLD WAR.
The progress of the war was marked by many important political events.
The first of these was the assassination of M. Jaurés, the leader of the Unified Socialists, in 1914. The French Cabinet was reorganized on Aug. 26, 1914, with M. Viviani as Prime Minister. On Sept. 3, as a result of the possible danger of the German occupation of Paris, the French Government was removed to Bordeaux, where it remained until December of that year. Delcassé resigned as Foreign Minister on Oct. 30, 1914. On Dec. 2, 1915, General Joffre was placed in supreme command of all the French armies. Changes in the Cabinet were made during 1916 as a result of criticism in respect to the conduct of the war. There were, indeed, throughout the struggle, continuous changes in the ministry, which continued until the formation, in 1917, of a new ministry under Clemenceau. This continued throughout the duration of the war. A number of prominent persons were involved in charges of disloyalty and treason. These included Malvy, Minister of the Interior; Caillaux, a former Prime Minister; and Senator Humbert. There were also treason charges against the editors of the Bonnet Rouge, Bolo Pasha, and others. All these men were charged with being concerned either directly or indirectly in treasonable dealings with the enemy.
They were all eventually tried and found 1 FRANCE guilty, with the exception of Senator Humbert, who was acquitted. France was represented at the Peace Conference chiefly by M. Clemenceau, who was one of the chief figures in the deliberations of that body on June 27, 1919. The Senate passed the Electoral Reform Bill which had already been passed by the Chamber.
The Peace Treaty was ratified by the Chamber of Deputies on Oct. 9, 1919, and the military agreements between France, Great Britain, and the United States were also ratified on Oct. 13.
On Oct. 19 the French War Parliament, which had been in session since the summer of 1919, came to an end.
Jan. 18, 1920. President Poincaré com- M. Clemenceau resigned as premier on pleted his term of office on Feb. 17, 1920, and was succeeded by Paul Deschanel. During May there were riots in Paris and a strike was begun for the nationalization of the railroads. These strikes were prevented by a threat of Premier Millerand to dissolve the General Federation of Labor. Deschanel resigned the presidency on Dec. 10 on count of ill health, and was succeeded by Alexandre Millerand. Georges Leygues became Prime Minister. ac The chief efforts in France during 1920 and 1921 were for the reconstruction of the country from the devastations of the war. The financial and economic conditions are described in another portion of this article. France depended largely for rehabilitation upon the indemnities or reparations to be received from Germany. The Supreme Council finally decided that the total reparations should be about $56,000,000,000, to be paid in a definite period of years. At a session of the Supreme Council held in London in March, 1921, Germany refused to accept this sum and as a consequence French troops were despatched to occupy the German cities of Düsseldorf, Duisburg, and Ruhrort on March 7, 1921. See PEACE TREATY; ALSACE-LORRAINE; WORLD WAR; VERDUN, MARNE, PICARDY, AISNE, BAT- TLES OF; LEAGUE OF NATIONS; TREATY OF VERSAILLES.
The following are the Presidents of the Third Republic:
Louis Adolph Thiers, 1871-1873.
M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon, 1873-1879.
François Paul Jules Grévy, 1879-1887.
Marie François Sadi-Carnot, 1887- 1894.
Jean Casimir-Perier, 1894-1895.
Félix Faure, 1895-1898.
Emile Loubet, 1898-1906.
Armand Falliéres, 1906-1913.
Raymond Poincaré, 1913-1920.
Paul Deschanel, 1920.
Alexandre Millerand, 1920- FRANCE, FRANCE ANATOLE a (JACQUES ANATOLE THIBAULT), a French novelist and poet of great perfection and distinction of style; born in Paris, April 16, 1844. His first volume of "Poems" was published in 1873, and his dramatic poem "Corinthian Revels" in 1876.
The humorous story "Jocaste and the Lean Cat" (1879) was received with indifference, but he had brilliant success with "The Crime of Sylvester Bonnard" (1881); "The Yule Log" (1881); and "The Wishes of Jean Servien" (1881).
His other works include "Our Children:
Scenes in Town and in the Fields" (1886); "Queen Pédauque's Cook-Shop"; "Opinions of the Abbé Jérôme Coignard" (1893) "The Garden of Epicurus"; of Epicurus" ; Abeille"; "My Friend's Book"; "Our Children"; "Balthazar"; "Thaïs"; "Literary Life"; "Alfred de Vigny"; etc. He ; was elected to the French Academy in 1884.