Greece
a kingdom of southeastern Europe; bounded by Albania, Jugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey, the Black, Ægean, Ionian, and Mediterranean Seas; capital, Athens, with a population of about 300,000 (including Piræus). Greece gained greatly in territorial area as a result of the redistribution of territory at the Peace Conference in Paris. In tory addition to the acquisition of Thrace and numerous islands in the Ægean Sea, Greece also assumed the administration of the Smyrna district of Asia Minor, with a proviso that a plebiscite be held at the end of five years to determine whether or not it shall remain permanently in Greek hands. The acquisition of new territories obtained as a result of the war with Turkey, from October 17, 1912, to May 30, 1913, and with Bulgaria, from June 30 to August 10, 1913, gave the country a total area of 41,933 square miles. There were added as a result of the World War, Bulgarian or western Thrace, Macedonia, and the Ægean Islands, with the exception of Imbros, Tenedos and Castellorizzo, which according to the terms of the Peace Treaty are to be returned to Turkey.
The population of the added territory is about 2,000,000 and of the old territory about 2,700,000; population of the kingdom about 4,821,300. Topography. - Greece forms the S. extremity of the Balkan peninsula and numerous outlying islands. The coast line is very extensive, being formed by numerous gulfs and bays, of which the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs nearly meet at the Isthmus of Corinth, separating northern Greece from Morea. The surface is very mountainous. In the N. are the Cambunian Mountains, with Mount Olympus (9,754 feet) at the E. extremity. A range called Mount Pindus runs N. and S. parallel to both coasts, with many smaller ranges branching off in all directions. The rivers are small, and as a rule mere mountain torrents, none of them being navigable. Production and Industry. - Greece is mainly an agricultural country, although only about one-fifth of the total area is suitable for cultivation. The de- GREECE forestation of the country has gone on steadily for years, and this has greatly decreased the area that could profitably be devoted to agriculture. The land is to a large extent in the hands of peasant proprietors, and metayer farmers. Agriculture on the whole is in a backward state. The chief cereals grown are wheat, barley, rye, maize, and mezlin.
The total area under cultivation in 1919 was 2,029,000 acres. The favorite crop is currant, the yield of which in 1919 was 145,000 tons. Olives are also of great importance. The production of olive oil in 1918 was 31,702,800 gallons, and the tobacco crop in the same year amounted to 48,699,000 pounds. In 1919 the tobacco crop was 57,198,455 pounds.
The yield of wine in 1918 was 10,566,800 gallons, while the nut crop was about 5,000,000 pounds. The principal fruits grown are figs, oranges, mandarins, and lemons. Rice is cultivated in Macedonia. in Macedonia .
Cheese and other dairy products also form part of the agricultural industry.
There were in 1917 2,218 factories, employing 36,124 wage earners, with products valued at 260,363,647 drachmai. (A drachmai equals $0.193.) The production of cotton goods is the leading industry. There were in 1917 128,225 spindles and 16,965 looms.
Mineral Production. - There is a considerable variety of mineral deposits which include iron, copper, zinc, lead, silver, manganese, aluminum, antimony, tin, nickel, etc. The laurium district of Thessaly and the Ægean Islands yield a large output of ores and earth. The chief mineral products in 1917 were as follows: iron, 63,364 tons; magnesite, 162,938 tons; salt, 45,560 tons; lead, 36,558 tons; zinc, 14,290 tons. The production of lignite coal in 1917 was 157,956 tons.
Commerce. The total imports in 1917 were valued at $39,440,692, compared with a value in 1916 of $77,091,696. The chief articles of import are agricultural products, chemical products, cotton yarns and fabric, paper products and sugar. The exports in 1917 amounted to $21,191,911, compared with $32,852,564 in 1916. The chief exports are agricultural products, metals and minerals, oil and oil substances, and animal products. The chief trade was with the United Kingdom, France and Italy. The imports of Greece from the United States for the fiscal year 1920 were valued at $48,707,778, while the exports to the United States amounted to $1,- 953,756.
Communication. There are in Greece about 1,400 miles of railway. Prior to the war with Turkey in 1912-13, Greece GREECE was completely isolated by land from years, and in the Council of State. The the rest of Europe, but in 1916 a rail- road was completed between Gida on the Saloniki-Monastir line, and Papapuli on the Thessalian frontier, a distance of 56 the rest of Europe, but in 1916 a railroad was completed between Gida on the Saloniki-Monastir line, and Papapuli on the Thessalian frontier, a distance of 56 miles, by which Greece was joined with the European railroads. In 1920 projects for new lines to the extent of 400 miles were under consideration. There are about 17,347 miles of telegraph wire and about 7,002 miles of telephone.
Finance. The revenue in 1919 was £45,908,000, and the expenditure £61,- 656,000. The external debt of Greece in December 31, 1919, was £41,916,520. In 1918 the governments of Great Britain, United States, and France agreed to advance to Greece about £30,000,000, the control of which was lodged in 'a financial and military commission. Practically all this sum was loaned to Greece. History.-The Greek nation boasts of GREECE History. The Greek nation boasts of fact. The Pelasgi were the first insucceeded by the Hellenes. the highest antiquity, and in the early Having gained the advantage over the and mythic period of their history it is almost impossible to separate fable from habitants, suc different directions over the country, and were soon joined by colonists from Egypt and Phoenicia. The first consti- tution of Greek cities is beyond the they peopled the continent with their own nation, who were divided into four reach of exact history; but it seems and Achaians. The Hellenes spread in different directions over the country, Egypt and Phoenicia. The first constiand were soon joined by colonists from tution of Greek cities is beyond the reach of exact history; but it seems months. years, and in the Council of State. The almost impossible to separate fable from less than three nor more than six
THE ACADEMY AT ATHENS
Education.
Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 12 years, but the law is not well enforced. The percentage of illiteracy is 9,000 teachers. For high. There are about 7,000 primary schools and about 9,000 secondary education there are about 75 high schools and about 425 middle schools, with about 60,000 pupils. There are agricultural schools, trade schools, and commercial schools. The universities are those of Athens, the National University, and the Capodistria University. The annual appropriation for high schools and about 425 middle schools, with about 60,000 pupils. There are agricultural schools, trade schools, and commercial schools. The univer-
Government. The government is a constitutional monarchy, the present from 1864. The exconstitution dating fro ecutive power is vested in the king and a ministry of 9 departments, Interior, Foreign Affairs, Communication, Education, Economy, Agriculture, Assistance, Finance, and Justice. The legislative authority is vested in a chamber, called the eign Affairs, Communication, Education, constitution dating from 1864. The ex- ecutive power is vested in the king and a ministry of 9 departments, Interior, Forby universal suff enthat monarchy was the earliest form; and Sicyon is stated to have founded 2000 B. C. Athens, Thebes, Sparta, Cor- inth, and Argos. Of the mythic or heroic period, the principal events are the siege of Thebes, and the Trojan war, com- 2000 B. C. Athens, Thebes, Sparta, Corinth, and Argos. Of the mythic or heroic of Thebes, and the Trojan war, comperiod, the principal events are the siege mencing 1198 B. C. The confusion arising from the latter event deprived many kingdoms of their princes, and enkingdoms of their princes, and couraged the ambition of the Dorian heraclidæ to such an extent that they colonized the shores of Asia Minor; and enslaved or expelled the inhabitants of the Peloponnesus. A fresh impu.se was to partake of that republican term given thereby to emigration; large bodies of people crossed the Ægean, and rulers, the states of Greece now ban as the governments changed with the which was afterward their peculiar The civil policy of of which latter now began to lessen the characteristic.
Sparta and Athens, the growing power influence of the other states, military knowledge, the arts of refinement and politics, advanced rapidly, and the quick knowledge, the arts of refinement and GREECE and sensitive Greeks carried refinement of manners to an extent not yet exceeded in modern times. They had at the same time an extensive commerce with Gaul, Italy, and Sicily. Their enterprise and love of liberty bore them successfully through all the troubles of the Persian war, 469 B. c.; but from the same reasons they became involved in intestine feuds. The Peloponnesian war, which lasted 30 years (ending 404 в. c.), destroyed their union, and paved the way for Philip of Macedon, who (338 B. C.) gained the decisive battle of Cheronæa, and thus became master of Greece. The brilliant conquests of Alexander engaged them for a few years; but their courage was now enervated, and their love of liberty almost extinguished.
When the Achaian league proved a vain defense against the kingdom of Macedon, Greece was utterly unable to contend with the arms of Rome; and after a brief contest, ending with the battle of Corinth (146 в. c.), the entire country became an integral portion of the Roman empire.
From the Roman conquest in 146 B. c., Greece was held as a dependency of the BYZANTINES (q. v.), the Franks, and the Turks till 1821, when the war of independence began with a revolt in the Danubian provinces. In January, 1822, the first National Assembly met in Epidarus and framed a provisional constitution. In the same year occurred the massacre in Scio, by the Turks, reducing the population from 100,000 to 1,800. The Greek navy was exceedingly successful under the two daring Admirals Miaoulis and Canaris, the latter of whom set fire to the Turkish admiral's flagship in the midst of the night at Tjesme, opposite the island of Chios, and destroyed several other Turkish men-of-war. In 1823 the Greeks captured the Turkish camp at Carpenesion, but in 1826 the Turks captured Missolonghi, its starving garrison having cut its way through the Turkish camp, and besieged Athens, receiving its surrender in June, 1827. About this time England, France, and Russia decided to intervene and sent their fleets, composed of a dozen vessels of each nation, to the port of Navarino, in the W. part of the Morea, to enforce an armistice. The Turkish and Egyptian fleets, composed of about 120 men-of-war, were anchored in that port. The Turks having fired on a boat with a flag of truce, killing a British officer, Oct. 20, 1826, the allied fleet opened fire on the Turko-Egyptian fleet and destroyed it completely, with a fearful loss of life. After this the Sultan became more pliable, and nego- GREECE tiations began among the Great Powers about the final status of Greece, which resulted in the establishment of the Greek kingdom by the treaty of London in 1830.
At the close of the war Prince John of Saxony was offered the throne of Greece; on his refusal it was accepted conditionally by Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (later on King of the Belgians), who soon resigned because he insisted on more extended frontiers of the new kingdom. In 1833 Prince Otho, second son of King Ludwig, of Bavaria, was appointed king, and for 10 years the country was under Bavarian rule without a constitution. On Sept. 15, 1843, an insurrection of the garrison of Athens, under General Kallergis, forced the king to grant a constitution, and a National Assembly was convoked to frame one, which was finally adopted March 16, 1844, enacting the establishment of a House of Representatives, called Boulé, whose members were elected by universal suffrage, and a Senate, whose members were selected by the king for life. But this charter, snatched thus by force from the king, was not honestly carried out, and great dissatisfaction ensued. In 1862, while the king and queen were making a tour in the provinces, a rising took place at Athens, a provisional government composed of three members was elected, and the throne was declared vacant. The royal couple returned to Germany.
In December following, Prince Alfred, the second son of Queen Victoria, was elected king by universal suffrage. He was ineligible on account of being of the house of one of the protecting powers. In 1863 Prince George, second son of King Christian of Denmark, was appointed king by the protecting powers, and accepted by the people. He arrived in Greece in October, 1863. During his reign the development of Greece in every direction has been rapid. In 1897, owing to the massacres by the Turks in the island of Crete, the Greek Government announced its intention to intervene and landed surreptitiously a regiment of regulars. A war between Turkey and Greece followed, in which Greece was defeated in Thessaly, and for a whole year that province was occupied by the Turks, but was evacuated finally by the latter on a payment by Greece of a war indemnity of $19,- 000,000. Later Turkey was forced by the Great Powers to evacuate Crete, and Prince George of Greece was installed by them as high commissioner for governing the island. He resigned in 1906 as result of internal a GREECE GREECE political disputes in the island and treaty with Serbia obligated Greece to M. Zaimis, formerly Greek Premier, support the Serbians against any was appointed High Commissioner. foreign aggression. It was known that Greece, in 1908, following the overthrow clared for union with Crete. This was not permitted, however, by the Great Powers. A political crisis was narrowly Greece, where the people disapproved of on the inclusion of Crete into Greek territory. Following the Balkan War in 1912-1913, Crete was finally ceded to Greece. Greece came into political conflict with Bulgaria and Rumania over the question of Macedonia, and in 1905 diplomatic relations between Greece and Rumania were severed and were not resumed until 1912. Venizelos, the Prime Minister, was in King, however, had married a sister of Serbia was attacked by Austria. The King, however, had married a sister of the German Emperor, and his symof the war, assumed a neutral attitude. The Greek Government, at the beginning of the war, assumed a neutral attitude. ed to th ow her fortunes with the Allies if the territory taken sides and agreed with the Allies if the territory taken from her as a result of the Second Ballos was willing to consider these terri- The pro-German los was willing to consider these territorial concessions.
elements in Greece, however, refused to consider such action. They were fur- 小 h liny THE PARTHENON Largely through the effective diplo- Largely through the effective diplowas practical political ruler of Greece, the Balkan League was formed in 1912 which successfully prosecuted war against Turkey. The Greek armies performed excellent service in the campaign of this war, especially in the capture of Saloniki. King George, while on a tour of inspection, was assassinated ture of Saloniki. King George, while succeeded by the Crown Prince Constantine. Grecce received, as a result of this succeeded by the Crown Prince Constanthe most valuable portions of Macedonia and Thrace, including Saloniki. She received also also Crete, as noted above. These and Thrace, including Saloniki. She rethe area and po population of Greece.
The outbreak of the World War in 1914 placed the government of Greece in an especially difficult position. The was ther strengthened by the entrance of Italy into the war on the side of the Entente. For the interests of Italy and Greece clashed in Albania and the islands of the Ægean, and the Greeks believed that some promises had been made to Italy which could be fulfilled only at the cost of Greek ambitions. In January, 1915, the islands of Tenedos and Lemnos were occupied as a base of operations against the Dardanelles. This done with the consent of Venizelos.
This brought the issue sharply to a point in Greece. The general staff declined to support Venizelos, and the King, through the Royal Council, refused to resigned and was succeeded by Gouresigned and was succeeded by Gou- June, 1915, Venizelos received a popular majority to the National Assembly of er.
GREECE Cabinet resigned and the King was obliged to invite Venizelos back into pow- In September the final invasion of Serbia by Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and German armies began and the Allies wished to send aid through Saloniki.
This was done with the consent of Venizelos, who was supported by the National Assembly. The King, however, declared that he could not support this pro-Ally policy and demanded Venizelos' resignation, which was given. He was succeeded by Zaimis and a policy of strict neutrality was again announced.
Zaimis was also forced to resign in November as a result of a vote of lack of confidence in the government. The King appointed another of his supporters premier in the person of M. Skouloudis. He at once dissolved the National Assembly, announcing that a general election would be held to indicate the sentiment of the people of Greece. As the soldiers mobilized were not allowed to vote, it would have been impossible to ascertain the will of the people by this method. In the meantime, the Greek authorities, both civil and military, were hampering in every possible way the activities of the Allies, who were preparing to relieve Serbia from the South. On Nov. 19, 1915, French and British warships began a blockade of Greek ports with the object of bringing Greece to terms through economic pressure. The strict embargo established quickly brought the Greek people to the verge of starvation and raised the danger of popular revolution in Athens. Finally the King and the government surrendered, and the Greek army, which had been concentrated around Saloniki, was withdrawn, and the railroad running from Saloniki to the Macedonian front GREECE Minister. The conditions exacted by the Allies were not fully kept. Among the people, Allied sentiment continued to grow, but the government remained firm in its pro-German policy. On Oct. 11, 1916, the Allied warships suddenly seized the larger part of the Greek fleet.
This was followed by an attack, on Dec. 2, by Greek soldiers upon French marines stationed at Athens. Venizelos now declared himself in revolt against the King and established himself in Saloniki. The situation remained estranged until during the spring of 1917, on June 12, it was suddenly announced that Constantine had abdicated in favor of his second son, Alexander. This was the result of an ultimatum presented by the Entente nations. On the following day Constantine embarked on a British warship to Italy, going thence to Switzerland, where he remained in retirement until December, 1920. He was accompanied by members of his family.
The hostile attitude of Greece now came to an end. Venizelos returned to Athens and was invited by King Alexander to form a new cabinet. On June 29 the Greek Government severed diplomatic relations with the Central nations and prepared to take part in active hostilities. The Greek army rendered valuable service in the operations which followed in the Balkans.
In the person of Venizelos, Greece was one of the most active participants at the Peace Conference, and as a result of his policy Greece was awarded large concessions in Macedonia and Thrace.
These are described in an earlier portion of this article. A great peace celebration was held in Athens following the deliberations of the Peace Conference, but propaganda to restore Constantine was turned over to the Allied authorities. to the throne was already under way. The sympathy of the Greek Government, however, continued to be strictly pro- German, and Venizelos was again in retirement. A general election was held, but the supporters of Venizelos refused to vote. The Bulgarian army on May 26, 1916, crossed the Grecian frontier.
The Greek forces offered no resistance and either surrendered to the Bulgarians or retired. It was the belief among the Allied governments that this was the result of a secret agreement between the Greek Premier and Germany. In June, another partial blockade of Greek ports was instituted. This resulted in the partial demobilization of the Greek army.
Finally, on June 23, 1916, the Allies demanded complete demobilization, a new cabinet, and the dissolution of the National Assembly. The cabinet resigned and Alexander Zaimis became Prime On Aug. 12 an attempt was made to assassinate Venizelos in Paris. On Oct. 25 King Alexander died as the result of a bite from a pet monkey.
Three days later Parliament proclaimed as King his brother Paul, who was at that time with his father at Lucerne.
Paul declined the throne, thereby strengthening the conspiracy to bring back the deposed sovereign. An election was held on Nov. 14 and a special plebiscite on Dec. 5, both of which were strongly in favor of the return of Constantine. Despite the protest of the Allies, he returned and was received triumphantly as King. Greece ratified the Bulgarian, Austrian, and German treaties on Feb. 28, 1920. Turkey refused to abide by the conditions of the Sèvres Treaty, by which Greece was awarded portions of former Turkish GREEK CHURCH territory in Asia Minor. The so-called Turkish Nationalists, under the compaign in Asia Minor, and the Greek Government undertook to suppress this. Operations were carried on throughout paign in Asia Minor, and the Greek Government undertook to suppress this.
Operations were carried on throughout the latter part of 1920 and in 1921, with little definite results. The Allied Supreme Council met in London in March, 1921, and endeavored to compromise the difficulties between Turkey and Greece.