Lippmann
WALTER, an American writer; born in New York, in 1889. He graduated from Harvard in 1910, and afterward carried on post-graduate studies in philosophy. From 1914 to 1917 he was assistant editor of the "New Republic," and in the latter year he became an adviser of the War Department include "A at Washington. He contributed widely to periodicals on social and political subjects. His published writings inclu Preface to Politics" (1913); "Drift and Mastery" (1914); "The Stakes of Diplomacy" (1915).
LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHN- STONE, a British sportsman; born in Glasgow, of Irish parents. He was pro- STONE, a British sportsman; born in prietor of large tea estates in Ceylon; owned a refrigerator car plant in the United States; and was president of a pork packing company in Chicago. He was, however, best known as the owner pork packing company in Chicago. He United States; and was president of a of the English and "Shamrock II.", with which vessels of the English yachts "Shamrock I." he unsuccessfully competed for the for money to provide dinners for the the Princess of Wales issued an appeal During Queen Victoria's Jubilee, in 1897, the Princess of Wales issued an appeal for money to provide dinners for the can yacht "Columbia" in 1899 and 1901. poorest of the poor in London on some Lipton contributed $100,000. The result of this movement was "The Alexandra Trust," the purpose of which is to proone day of the festivities. To this fund cooked food at cost price. To this object working people may buy wholesome, wellcooked food at cost price. To this object. Lipton gave $500,000 in 1898, and promised more when needed. In consideration again in July, 1920. of his liberality he was knighted in 1898.
Representing the Royal Ulster Yacht America's Cup in 1899, 1901, 1903, and again in July, 1920.
LIQUEFACTION OF GASES could not be liquefied under any conditions, and from the sixteenth to the LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. It was eigh formerly believed that certain gases statement that only the latter could be eighteenth century it was customary to liquefied. It is now known, however, temperature can be obtained. The earliest gas to be liquefied was sulphur that any gas can be liquefied the necessary high pressure and low beginning of the nineteenth century, and dioxide, by Monge and Clouet at the ied provided chloride were reduced to the liquid state a few years later chlorine and hydrogen beginning of the nineteenth century, and by Northmore. Little interest shown in the subject however, until a few years later chlorine and hydrogen 1823, when Faraday ay began his series was of experiments on liquefaction of gases, as a result of which he succeeded in producing sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, cyanogen, ammonia, carbon form. His method was dioxide and nitrous oxide in a liquid to introduce materials for generating gas into the limb of a bent tube, the other limb being On generating the gas, high pressure sealed and packed in a freezing mixture. was produced, and at length the gas including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and liquefied in the cold limb. Other worklorier and Natterer, but certain gases, 3600 atmospheres was used by Natterer, and for a time it was believed that there carbon monoxide could not be liquefied existed so-called "permanent gases,' even though the enormous pressure of which defied liquefaction. Then came existed so-called "permanent gases," and for a time it was believed that there ing carbon dioxide in a tube at a temthe discovery, by Andrews, of "critical" ished until, at a certain pressure, which the discovery, by Andrews, of "critical" which defied liquefaction. Then came وو OF GASES with the to Ameri in 1899 and 1901. '
s Jubilee, in 1897, issued an appeal dinners for the London on some ties. To this fund 0,000. The result "The Alexandra which is to proer London where wholesome, welle. To this object 1898, and prom- In consideration knighted in 1898. 1 Ulster Yacht tested for the 1901, 1908, and ASES. It was certain gases der any conditeenth to the customary to vapors" by the atter could be wn, however, fied provided are and low d. The aarwas sulphur ouet at the centory, and d bydrogen liquid state Serest was ever, until his series of gases, cceeded in hydrogen carbon a liquid introduce into the mb being mixture. pressure the gas gazes, ren and quefied ure of tterer, there came tical" Dres LIQUID eral small hills, and presents a magnifi- cently picturesque appearance from the varied with the temperature, liquefaction on the shores of the Tagus, and on sev to liquefy carbon dioxide, no matter what pressure was employed. He ob- Tagus, and is crowded with palaces. however, he found that it was impossible cently picturesque appearance from the to liquefy carbon dioxide, no matter what pressure was employed. He observed similar phenomena in the case of nitrous oxide, and concluded that for every gas there is a definite temperature perature. It was now clear that the temperature he called its critical temperature. It was now clear that the the temperatures used by them were certain gases was due to the fact that the temperatures used by them were above the critical temperatures and the attention of workers on the subject was turned to the production of extreme cold. In 1877 Louis Cailletet succeeded in liquefying both oxygen and carbon ing a gas at a low temperature and then suddenly releasing the pressure, a marked drop in temperature occurred, and it was by utilization of this fact that he and later workers succeeded in lique- fying in turn all the "permanent gases." Liquid air and oxygen were produced in large quantities as a result of Dewar's experiments, and Hampson and Linde, in 1895, introduced the method of selfintensive refrigeration, in which the gas to be liquefied is continuously supplied through an apparatus in which it is cooled by expansion, and each portion of gas, after such cooling, is utilized in cooling the succeeding portion, until the cumulative effect produces liquefaction.