Home › M › Mexico (Republic of North Ameri ca)

Mexico (Republic of North Ameri ca)

a republic of North Ameri ca; bounded on the N. by the United States; on the E. by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; on the S. and S.

E. by Guatemala and British Honduras; and on the W. and S. W. by the Pacific Ocean; area, 767,005 square miles; pop. about 16,000,000.

Topography. For the most part Mexico consists of an immense tableland. The prevailing formations are metamorphic, but partly overlaid by igneous rocks of every geologic epoch, rich in metalliferous ores. In the highest ranges granites and other igneous rocks prevail, with deposits of sulphur and pumice, and other recent volcanic discharges. In the N. chalk and sandstones become prevalent. The most important range is the Sierra Madre (over 10,000 feet); parallel wth this run the sierras of the E. coast and of Lower California.

The surface of the country is also much broken up by short cross-ridges and detached peaks, the principal being the Cordillera de Anahuac culminating in Nevado de Toluca (19,454 feet), the highest point on the North American continent, and Popocatepetl (17,523). The Pico de Orizaba, E. of Popocatepetl, is 18,205 feet high. On the Atlantic side the plateau descends abruptly to the narrow strip (about 60 miles) of gently sloping coast land; toward the Pacific, where the coast lands vary in width from 40 to 70 miles, the descent is more gradual. Of the present lakes the only one of great size is Chapala, which is traversed by the Rio Grande de Santiago; but considerable bodies of water collect in depressions in the uplands during the heavy rains. The rivers of Mexico are of little use for navigation. S. of the Rio Grande del Norte, on the Texan frontier, they are mostly impetuous mountain torrents, or flow through rocky gorges, sometimes 1,000 feet deep. Only in the narrow strips between the plateau and the coast are they available as channels of trade.

Climate. In the plateau region the climate is almost that of perpetual spring, and the atmosphere is remarkably free from moisture, but so scarce is rain that plateau agriculture is largely dependent on irrigation. ion. An immense desert tract extends from Chihuahua to Zacatecas. On the coast lands water is abundant, but the climate is so unhealthful that few white men can labor there. Agriculture. The total production of cotton in 1918 was 79,293 tons. Corn MEXICO produced amounted to 1,128,570,535 kilograms. One of the most valuable products of Mexico is henequen, or sisal fiber. This is produced chiefly in Yucatan and this is the only important product of that province. It furnishes a large part of the material for binder twine throughout the world. The exports of this commodity amount to about 150,000 tons annually, with a value of $50,000,000.

Mineralogy. The country is rich in minerals, many of which have been worked from an early date. Silver, especially, has been an important industry ever since the conquest. Gold is also produced. Copper is largely mined in some sections, being found in a pure state in Chiapas and Guanajuato, and elsewhere associated with gold. Other important minerals are iron, including enormous masses of meteoric iron ore.

The mountain, Cerro de Mercado, a mile from Durango, is a solid mass of magnetic iron ore. Other mineral products are lead, sulphur, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinnabar, asphalt, petroleum, salt, marble, alabaster, gypsum and rock-salt.

Mineral Production. - Figures are incomplete for the production of metals in recent years. In 1918 the value of production was approximately as follows: Silver, 65,654,751 pesos; copper, 66,096,- 344 pesos; lead, 23,800,639 pesos; zinc, 9,036,233 pesos; gold, 3,244,781 pesos, and antimony, 2,407,147 pesos. Oil production has been the chief feature of the mineral production of Mexico for several years. The production of petroleum in 1918 amounted to 63,820,836 barrels, with an approximate production in 1919 of 80,000,000. Several rich deposits of petroleum were found during 1919. Manufactures. - Till recent years very little manufacturing was done in Mexico, the number of factories using steam not greatly exceeding 100 prior to 1888.

Cotton, woolen underwear, carpets, and cloths are now made in considerable quantities. There are also many cigar and cigarette factories, flour mills, distilleries, powder mills, soap factories, paper mills, tile factories, etc. The uncertainties in the country in the last decade has resulted in disturbance of industrial conditions. There has, however, been a steady increase in the importance of manufacturing. The indications are that Mexico would be an important industrial country when political conditions adjust themselves on a steady basis. During 1918-19 an industrial census was taken. The partial results of that census indicate 3,805 industrial establishments, divided as follows: food industry, 693; metals, 614; textiles, 213; elec- GU MEXICO tríc, 40; miscellaneous, 2,245. The capital involved was about 240,000,000 pesos and about 35,000 wage earners were employed.

Commerce. Foreign trade with Mexico in 1918 amounted to $265,887,744, of which imports were valued at $82,235,019 and exports $183,652,725. By comparison with the figures of 1913 imports show a loss of about $15,000,000 and exports a gain of about $30,000,000. The most important imports were vegetable products, mineral products, and textiles.

The chief exports were mineral products, including petroleum, which amounted in value to $106,966,171; vegetable products, and animal products. In 1919 the export of oil was estimated at about 80,- 000,000 barrels.

Transportation and Communication.- The constant series of revolutions and other disturbances has resulted in more or less demoralization of the railway systems of Mexico. Many of the railway lines will have to be rebuilt entirely and most of them repaired to a large extent before they reach a condition where transportation will be normal again.

Heavy storms in the autumn of 1919 did severe damage to the railway lines.

Many large bridges were swept away.

The railway between the city of Durango and the port of Matazlan was almost completed at the end of the year 1919.

The merchant marine for 1919 had a tonnage of 40,257, and the vessels engaged in river trade had a tonnage of 366,726. The total railway mileage is gaged in river trade had a tonnage of about 16,000. There is a fairly complete system of telegraphs. There are about 50,000 miles of telegraph wires. The system of telegraphs. There are about about 16,000. There is a fairly complete wireless system is in operation.

Education. tem, Mexico is far behind many of the In its educational sysother American countries. The great other American countries. The great tem, Mexico is far behind many of the no serious attempt has been made by any of the rulers of the country to establish a complete estimate of schools. While in theory education is compulsory and free in the lower grades, no serious attempt is made to compel the Indian population to attend these schools. There are secondary schools, professional schools, and military and naval schools.

The Mexican University, which was founded in 1553 and reorganized in 1910, forms the head of the educational system of the country. There are about 3,000 private and clerical schools. The total number of primer schools supported by the State governments and by munici- 3,000 private and clerical schools. The about 700,000_pupils.

Religion. The prevailing faith is Roman Catholic, which was the State re- MEXICO government declared that it recognized ligion till 1857. On Sept. 25, 1873, the government declared that it recognized no State religion. the country in recent years has produced demoralization in the financial system. The revenue for 1919 was about Finances. The disturbed condition of 150,000,000 pesos, and for 1920 about 160,000,000 pesos. The foreign debt, exclusive of interest, in 1918 amounted to 160,000,000 pesos. The foreign debt, ex- 296,944,251 pesos and the internal debt to 138,795,550 pesos. The interest due pesos, making the total for the entire debt about 530,000,000 pesos. A vast pesos, making the total for the entire on both debts amounted to 103,832,284 amount of paper money was put into ciron both debts amounted to 103,832,284 culation. President Carranza attempted amount of paper money was put into cirfar as revenue was concerned. The greater part of the amount produced, far as revenue was concerned. The and met with considerable success, as of the army and other large sums were absorbed by individuals, so that the country at large rge received small benefit. ico is that of a republic. A new constitution was promulgated on Feb. 5, 1917. The several States have absolute control

Government. The government of Mexof their internal affairs. The President, who is chosen every four years, and is of their internal affairs. The President, The several States have absolute control tution was promulgated on Feb. 5, 1917. assisted by a cabinet of seven secretaries, viz.: Foreign Affairs; Interior; Justice assisted by a cabinet of seven secretaries, now eligible to consecutive re-elections, is nization and Industry; Communications and Public Works; Finance and Public Credit; and War and Marine. The legislative power is vested in a Congress, composed of a Senate and House of Representatives. tive for every 60,000 population. The ular vote on the basis of one representa- Senate consists of 58 members, two from terms are two years, are elected by pop- Representatives, whose each State, and two from the Federal District, who serve four years, and are elected in the same manner as the representatives. The justices of the Supreme Court, which occupies the same position as that of the United States, are chosen by popular suffrage and serve for six years. There is one annual session of Congress. ico exhibits two distinct and widely difare chosen by popular suffrage and that of the Aztecs. The 8th century is History. The history of ancient Mexsession of Congress. serve for six years. There is one annual related to have come from the N. Their ico exhibits two distinct and widely difthe Mexican valley. Their laws and usages stamp them as a people of mild related to have come from the N. Their capital was established at Tula, N. of and peaceful instincts, industrious, active MEXICO stroyed the Toltec people in the 11th century, and near the end of the next century a fresh migration brought, among other kindred nations, the Aztecs into the land. Within two centuries and a half this last people had become predominant. But their rule was, in a great degree, a reversion to savagery.

The Aztecs founded, about 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan, or Mexico; a hundred years later they had extended their sway beyond their pla plateau valley, and on the arrival of the Spaniards, their empire was found to stretch from ocean to ocean. Their government was an elective empire, the deceased prince being usually succeeded by a brother or nephew, who must be a tried warrior; but sometimes the successor was chosen from among the powerful nobles. The monarch wielded despotic power, save in the case of his great feudal vassals; these exercised a very similar authority over the peasant class, below whom, again, were the slaves. The Mexicans apparently believed in one supreme invisible creator of all things, the ruler of the universe; but the popular faith was polytheistic.

At the head of the Aztec pantheon was the frightful Huitzilopochtli, the Mexican Mars. In every city of the empire his altars were drenched with the blood of human sacrifice. The victims, usually prisoners of war, were borne to the summit of the great pyramidal temples, where the priests, in sight of assembled crowds, bound them to the sacrificial stone, and, slashing open the breast, tore from it the bleeding heart and held it up before the image of the god. In the years immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, not less than 20,000 victims were annually immolated, including infants, for the propitiation of the rain gods.

Cortez landed at Vera Cruz in 1519.

Before his energy, and the superior civilization of his followers, the power of the native empire crumbled away. In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver's Island under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys (57 in all), appointed by the mother country. The intolerant spirit of the Catholic clergy led to the suppression of almost every trace of the ancient Aztec nationality and civilization, while the commercial system crippled the resources of the colony; for all foreign trade with any country other than Spain was prohibited on pain of death. Mexico ranked first among all the Spanish colonies in regard to population, material riches, and natural products. In 1810 the discontent, which MEXICO had been gaining ground against the viceregal power during the war of the mother country with Napoleon, broke into open rebellion under the leadership of a country priest named Hidalgo. After his defeat and execution in 1811, Morelos, another priest, continued the struggle till he shared the same fate in 1815; and a guerilla warfare was kept up until, in 1821, the capital was surrendered by O'Donoju (a Spaniard of Irish descent), the last of the viceroys. In the following year General Iturbide, who in 1821 had issued the plan de Iguala, providing for the independence of Mexico under a xico under a prince of the reigning house, had himself proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and Gen. Santa Ana raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Returning the following year, he was taken and shot, and the federal republic of Mexico was finally established.

For more than half a century after this (till 1876), the history of Mexico is a record of nearly chronic disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas secured its inependence, for which it had struggled for several years, and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States; but its W. boundary was not settled, and war ensued between Mexico and the United States (see MEXICAN WAR). From the fall of Santa Ana in 1855, down to 1867, great confusion prevailed. In 1853 Benito Juarez became president, but his claims were contested by General Miramon, the head of the reactionary or clerical party, and the country was plunged in civil war. During this period of internal disorder, the Cortes passed an act suspending all payments to foreigners for two years, an act that drew upon the Mexican government the serious remonstrance of those European powers whose subjects had just cause of complaint; and the result was the dispatch of a fleet of English, French, and Spanish ships into the Mexican Gulf for the purpose of enforcing satisfaction. In 1861 the Spaniards disembarked a force at Vera Cruz; and this step was soon followed by the arrival before that city of the allied fleet. Preparations to advance at once upon the capital alarmed the provisional government, and brought about an armistice, with a view of negotiating a treaty for the future regulation of commercial intercourse between Mexico and the European powers. This treaty was drawn up and provisionally ratified by the different commanders, but was not con- MEXICO firmed on the part of France, and consequently the French troops retained occupation of Mexican territory after the Spaniards and English had declined to join in further hostile demonstrations.

In April, 1862, Emperor Napoleon for mally declared war against Mexico; but the French never met with the welcome they expected from the people and finally had to withdraw, without permanent success, in 1867, largely because of the attitude of the United States. MAXI- MILIAN (q. v.), who had become Emperor of Mexico under French support, was executed in the same year, and Juarez returned to practically absolute power. On the death of Juarez in 1872, the chief justice, Lerdo de Tejada, assumed the presidency, in which, after a revolution, he was succeeded in 1876 by Gen. Porfirio Diaz, one of the ablest of Mexican soldiers and administrators, who was re-elected in 1884, 1888, 1892, 1896, 1900, and 1904.

Diaz remained president and practically dictator of Mexico until 1910. Dissatisfaction with his rule, however, had been steadily accumulating, and, when plans were made by his supporters in 1910 to re-elect him for another term of six years, opposition became pronounced.

This was headed by Francisco I. Madero, a wealthy landowner of liberal ideas.

He became a candidate against Diaz, but was arrested by the government on the eve of the election and was thus eliminated. Diaz was re-elected for his eighth term in July 26, 1910. His rule, however, was brief. Madero, on his release from prison, began an active propaganda and in November headed an outbreak at Chihuahua. The movement spread rapidly, and Diaz realized that his career as ruler of Mexico was over. Following a number of successes Madero entered the City of Mexico on June 7, 1911. Diaz in the meantime had signed a treaty providing for his resignation. Madero was chosen president and inaugurated on Nov. 6. His rule, however, was shortlived. Revolutions broke out in various parts of the country. The most serious of these was headed by Felix Diaz, a nephew of the former president.

On Feb. 19, 1913, following a sharp struggle in the City of Mexico, having been deserted by his military commander, Victoriano Huerta, Madero was arrested and forced to resign. Four days later he was killed while being transferred from one prison to another. Huerta then became provisional president. No sooner had he taken office, when a counterrevolution, headed by Venustiano Carranza, governor of Coahuila, broke out. The revolt spread rapidly and Huerta's MEXICO position was made more difficult by the fact that the United States Government refused to recognize him as president on account of charges that he had been responsible for the death of Madero.

Huerta was elected president in October, 1916. President Wilson protested against the election and demanded the elimination of Huerta on the condition of resuming friendly relations with Mexico. His demand was ignored and Huerta's election was declared valid. The revolution of Carranza continued to spread. Francisco Villa assisted Carranza and captured Juarez and other large cities.

At the beginning of 1914, the Constitutionalists, a name adopted by the Carranza party, held nearly all the north ern States. The chief military leaders were Villa, Alvaro Obregon, and Pablo Gonzales. Their military successes continued. The situation of Huerta was made still more dangerous by the socalled Tampico incident. American marines at Tampico were arrested while landing from a launch flying the American flag. President Wilson demanded an apology which was refused. This resulted in the sending of American war ships to Vera Cruz, followed by a bombardment of the city, which was captured on April 21, 1914. War was averted only by the action of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, who offered their services as mediators. Delegates met at Niagara Falls on May 20 and remained in session until June 24. A provisional arrangement was drawn up, but this provided no practical solution for the difficulties. Huerta resigned the presidency in the face of continued successes of the revolutionists, on July 15. After a brief interval, Carranza became provisional supreme ruler. Villa now turned upon Carranza, whom he denounced as a traitor and in the course of months Villa became the chief power in the country.

Carranza had resigned and Villa was in virtual control. Various persons acted as nominal heads of the government, although Villa was the chief power. The Constitutionalist forces under General Obregon, however, were able to successfully oppose him and a decisive defeat was administered to Villa's army at Celaya, in April, 1915. Within a short time Villa had lost control of all except the extreme northern districts of Mexico. By the end of the year Carranza was again in supreme power and was recognized by the United States as head of the government.

On March 9, 1916, Villa, without warning, raided the town of Columbus in New Mexico, killing 18 persons, some of whom were United States soldiers who were MEXICO guarding the border. President Wilson at once organized a pursuit expedition under General Pershing, which proceeded over the border in spite of the protests of Carranza who demanded that the American troops be removed. The search for Villa was futile. In May and June occurred other raids upon American towns and the situation became so threatening that President Wilson called out practically all the State Militia for service on the Mexican border. Several clashes followed between American and Mexican troops. At Carrizal, on June 21, 1916, 12 American soldiers were killed and 24 wounded. Carranza expressed a desire for peace and asked for a conference. To this the President consented, and a commission consisting of three consisting Mexicans and three Americans met in New London, Conn., on Sept. 6, 1916, and worked out a program which assured the withdrawal of the American forces from Mexico.

There now seemed promise of a period of peace. The Constitutional Convention met in February, 1917, to draft a new constitution. This contained many new and radical provisions and made especially stringent laws against the rights of foreigners in the country. The constitution was adopted in 1917, when Carranza was elected president. The internal affairs of the country remained in a continually troubled condition. Various revolutions broke out and at no time during Carranza's rule was there complete peace. At the outbreak of the World War Mexico was the field of strong pro- German propaganda. (See WORLD WAR.) Villa, who had been little heard of since the raid on Columbus in 1917, began raiding the border anew in 1919. Many American citizens were killed by adherents of Villa and by those of Carranza as well. On Aug. 14, 1919, the American Government informed Mexico that immediate steps must be taken to protect American citizens. In the same month two American aviators had become lost while flying over Mexican territory and were seized and held for a ransom of $50,000. The men were released on the payment of the ransom. Another complication resulted from the seizure of William O. Jenkins. Consular Agent at Pueblo, by bandits, who asked a ransom of $150,000. The American Government demanded his release, but Mexico refused to take action. The ransom was finally paid. Late in 1919 a rebellion broke out headed by Gen. Felipe Angeles. General Angeles was captured and after court-martial was shot.

Carranza's position became ever more difficult. His former military leaders, MEXICO Obregon and Gonzales, became candidates against him for the presidency in 1920. A revolution instigated by Obregon broke out in Sonora in April, 1920. This rapidly spread over the entire country until Carranza was obliged to flee from the capital, accompanied by a considerable military force. While attempting to reach Vera Cruz, this force was attacked and defeated by the revolutionists. Carranza fled with a small body of men, and while asleep in a small cabin at Tlaxcaltongo, was murdered on May 21, 1920. A few days later the troops of Obregon and Gonzales entered the City of Mexico in triumph. Obregon was now the most conspicuous candidate for the presidency and Gonzales professed his intention to withdraw. Both issued statements expressing their intention to strive to bring about friendly relations between Mexico and the United States.

Adolfo de la Huerta was chosen provisional president in May, 1920. Villa threatened to become a disturbing factor on being refused what he considered proper recognition by the new government, but after conducting a short campaign consented, on the payment of a large sum of money and a grant of land, to refrain from any further military operations. General Obregon was elected president on Sept. 5, for six years, beginning Dec. 1, 1920.