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Rome (Capital of Italy as formerly)

the capital of Italy, as formerly of the Roman empire, republic, and kingdom, and long the religious of Western Christendom, is one religious of the most ancient and interesting cities of the world . It stands on both sides of the Tiber , about 15 miles from the sea, the river here having a general direction from N. to S., but making two nearly equal bends, the upper of which a large alluvial flat, little raised above the level of the stream, and well known by the ancient name of Campus Martius. A large part of the modern city stands on this flat, but the ancient city lay mostly to the E. and S. E. of this, occupying a series of eminences of small elevation known as the seven hills of Rome (the Capitoline, the Palatine, the Aventine, the Quirinal, the Viminal, the Esquiline, and the Cælian Hill), while a small portion stood on the other side of the river, embracing an eighth ). The city is tolerably healthy during most of the year.

Ancient Rome, Topography, etc. The streets of ancient Rome were crooked and narrow, the city having been rebuilt, after its destruction by the Gauls in 390 B. C. , with great haste and without regard to regularity. The dwelling-houses were often very high, those of the poorer classes being in flats, as in modern continental towns . It was greatly improved by Augustus, who extended the limits of the city and embellished it with works of splendor . The Campus Martius during his reign was gradually covered with public buildings, temples, porticoes, thegeneral character of the city, however , remained much the same till after the fire that took place in Nero's reign, when the new streets were made both wide and straight. In the reign of Augustus the population is believed to have amounted to about 1,300,- 000, and in that of Trajan was not far short of 2,000,000 . Rome is said to have been surrounded by walls at three different times.

The first of these was ascribed to Romulus, and inclosed only the original city on the Palatine. The second wall, second wall, attributed to Servius Tulwas 7 miles in circuit, and embraced all the hills that gave to Rome the name of the City of Seven Hills.

The third wall is known as that of Au- ROME relian, because it was begun and in great part finished by the emperor of the wall that still bounds the city on the that name.

It is mostly the same with left or E. bank of the Tiber; but on the right or W. bank, the wall of Aurelian only embraced the summit of the Janiculum and a district between it and the river, whereas the more modern wall on braces also the Vatican Hill. The wall that side (that of Urban VIII.) em- .) emof Aurelian was about 11 miles in length, that of modern Rome 14 miles.

Ancient Rome had eight or nine bridges stand. The open spaces in ancient Rome, across the Tiber, of which several still of which there were a great number, were distinguished into campi, areas covered with grass ered with grass; fora, which were paved; applied to open spaces ROMULUS AND REMUS generally, and hence to all those which were neither campi nor fora, such as the squares in front of palaces and temples. the Campus Martius already mentioned, Of the campi the most celebrated was and after it the Campus Esquilinus on the E. of the city . Among the latter the Forum Romanum, which lay N. W. and S. E. between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills; and the Forum of Trajan, between the Capitoline and Quirinal, are the most worthy of mention.

The first was the most famous and the The great central street of the city was second the most splendid of them all. the Via Sacra (Sacred Way), which began in the space between the Esquiline and Cælian Hills, proceeded thence first S. W., then W., and then N. W., skirting the N.

E. slope of the Palatine, Forum, and terminated at the base of and passing along the N. side of the the Capitoline . The two principal roads leading out of Rome were the Via Flaroad, and the Via Appia (Appian Way) minia ( Flaminian Way) or great N. or great S. road.

Ancient Buildings. - Ancient Rome was ROME ROME adorned with a vast number of splendid ica Julia, commenced by Cæsar and combuildings, including temples, palaces, pleted by Augustus; and the Basilica public halls, theaters, amphitheaters, baths, porticoes, monuments, etc., of many of which we can now form only a very imperfect idea. The oldest and most sacred temple was that of Jupiter Capitolinus, on the Capitoline Hill. The Pantheon, a temple of various gods (now Church of S. Maria Rotonda), is still in excellent preservation. It is a great circular building with a dome roof of stone 140 feet wide and 140 feet high.

Other temples were the Temple of Apollo, which Augustus built of white marble, on the Palatine, containing a splendid library, which served as a place of resort to the poets; the Temple of Minerva, which Pompey built in the Campus Martius, and which Augustus covered with bronze; the Temple of Peace, once the richest and most beautiful temple in Rome, built by Vespasian, in the Via Sacra, which contained the treasures of the temple of Jerusalem, a splendid library, and other curiosities, but was burned during the reign of Commodus; the temple of the Sun, which Aurelian erected to the E. of the Quirinal; and the magnificent temple of Venus, which Cæsar caused to be built to her as the origin of his family. The principal palace of ancient Rome was the Palatium or imperial palace, on the Palatine Hill, a private dwelling-house enlarged and adopted as the imperial residence by Augustus. Succeeding emperors extended and beautified it.

Nero built an immense palace which was burned in the great fire. He began to replace it by another of similar extent, which was not completed till the reign of Domitian. Among the theaters, those of Pompey, Cornelius Balbus, and Marcellus were the most celebrated.

That of Pompey, in the Campus Martius, was capable of containing 40,000 persons. Of the Theater of Marcellus, completed 13 в. c., a portion still remains. The most magnificent of the amphitheaters was that of Titus, completed A. D. 80, now known as the Coliseum or Colosseum. Though only onethird of the gigantic structure remains, the ruins are still stupendous. The principal of the circuses was the Circus Maximus, between the Palatine and Aventine, which was capable of containing 260,000 spectators. With slight exception its walls have entirely disappeared, but its form is still distinctly traceable. The porticoes or colonnades, which were public places used for recreation or for the transaction of business, were numerous in the ancient city, as were also the basilicas or public halls. Among them may be noticed the splendid Basil- Porcia, which was built by Cato the censor.

The public baths or thermæ in Rome were also very numerous. The largest were the Thermæ of Titus, part of the substructure of which may still be seen on the Esquiline Hill; the Thermæ of Caracalla, even larger, extensive remains of which still exist in the S. E. of the city; and the Thermæ of Diocletian, the largest and most magnificent of all, part of which is converted into a church. Of the triumphal arches the most celebrated are those of Titus (A. D. 81), Severus (A. D. 203), and that of Constantine (A. D. 311), all in or near the Forum and all well preserved structures; that of Drusus (B. c. 8), in the Appian Way, much mutilated; that of Gallienus (A. D. 262) on the Esquiline Hill, in a degraded style of architecture. Among the columns the most beautiful was Trajan's Pillar in the Forum of Trajan, 147 feet in height, still standing. The basreliefs with which it is enriched, extending in spiral fashion from base to summit, represent the exploits of Trajan, and contain about 2,500 half and whole human figures. A flight of stairs within the pillar leads to the top. The most celebrated of ancient sewers is the Cloaca Maxima, ascribed to Tarquinius Priscus, a most substantial structure, the outlet of which is still to be seen.

The Roman aqueducts were formed by erecting one or several rows of arches superimposed on each other across a valley, and making the structure support a waterway or canal, and by piercing through hills which interrupted the watercourse. Some of them brought water from a distance of upward of 60 miles. Among others, the Aqua Paola, or Aqua Trajana, and the Aqua Marzia, still remain, and contribute to the supply of the city, and also its numerous important ornamental fountains. Among the magnificent sepulchral monuments, the chief were the mausoleum of Augustus in Campus Martius; and that of Hadrian, on the W. bank of the Tiber, now the fortress of modern Rome, and known as the Castle of St. Angelo.

The catacombs of Rome are subterranean galleries which were used as burial places and meeting places, chiefly by the early Christians, and which extend under the city itself as well as the neighboring country. The chief are the catacombs of Calixtus, St. Prætextatus on the Via Appia; of St. Priscilla, 2 miles beyond the Porta Salora; of St. Agnese, outside the Porta Pia; of S. Sebastiano, beneath the church of that name, etc. See CAT- ACOMBS.

ROME Modern Rome. It was not till the 17th century that the modern city was extended to its present limits on the right bank, by a wall built under the pontificates of Urban VIII. (1623-1644) and Innocent X. (1644-1655), and inclosing both the Janiculum and the Vatican hills. The boundary wall on the left or E. bank of the river follows the same line as that traced by Aurelian in the 3d century, and must in many parts be identical with the original structure.

The walls on both banks are built of brick, with occasional portions of stone work, and on the outside are about 55 feet high. The greater part dates from A. D. 271 to 276. The city is entered by 12 gates (several of those of earlier date being now walled up) and several railway accesses. Since Rome became the capital of united Italy it has lost much of its ancient picturesque appearance, and has acquired the look of a great modern city with wide, straight streets of uniform-looking tenements having little distinctive character. The extensive excavations carried out have laid completely bare the remains of many of the grandest monuments of ancient Rome, notably the whole of Forum Romanum and the Via Sacra, the remains of the Temples of Saturn and of Castor and Pollux, the Temples of Vespasian, of Antoninus and Faustina, the Temple of Vesta, etc.

Streets, Squares, etc. Among the principal streets and squares of modern Rome are the Piazza del Popolo immediately within the Porta del Popolo on the N. side of the city near the Tiber, with a fine Egyptian obelisk in its center, and two handsome churches in front, standing so far apart from each other and from the adjoining buildings as to leave room for the divergence of three principal streets, the Via di Ripetta, the Corso, and the Via del Babuino. The Corso stretches for upward of a mile in a direct line to its termination at the Piazza di Venezia, not far from the Capitol, and is the finest street in the city. The appearance of the Capitol has been entirely altered to permit the erection of a monument to Victor Emmanuel. The Via del Babuino proceeds first directly to the Piazza di Spagna, thence to the Quirinal, and by a tunnel opens out on the Esquiline. It contains a large number of handsome edifices.

The whole of the city to the E. of this street, and in the triangular space included between it and the Corso, Corso, is well aired and healthy, and is regarded as the aristocratic quarter. The Ghetto, or Jews' quarter, was cleared away in 1889.

The chief open spaces besides the Piazza del Popolo are the Piazza S. Pietro, ROME with its extensive colonnade; the Piazza Navona, adorned with two churches and three fountains, one at each extremity and the third in the center; the Piazza di Spagna, adorned by a monumental pillar and a magnificent staircase of travertine, leading to the Church of Trinità de' Monti, conspicuously seated on an eminence above it; the Piazza Barberini, beside the palace of the same name, adorned by a beautiful fountain; the Piazza Colonna, in the center of the city, with column of Marcus Aurelius; near it, in the Piazza di Monte Citoria, is the spacious Chamber of Deputies.

Larger spaces for amusement or exercise have been formed only in a few spots. One of the finest is the Pincio, or "hill of gardens," overlooking the Piazza del Popolo, and commanding a fine view. It is a fashionable drive toward evening, and presents a gay and animated appearance. At a short distance outside the walls on the N. of the city is the Villa Borghese, forming a finely planted and richly decorated park of 3 miles in circuit, which, though private property, forms the true public park of Rome and is the favorite resort of all classes. Various localities in and near Rome that were malarious have been rendered healthy by planting eucalyptus trees.

Churches. The most remarkable of these is the Cathedral of St. Peter, the largest and most imposing to be found anywhere. Another remarkable church is that of San Giovanni in Laterano, on an isolated spot near the S. wall of the city. It was built by Constantine the Great, destroyed by an earthquake in 896, re-erected (904-911), burned in 1308, restored and decorated by Giotto.

Again burned in 1360, rebuilt by Urban V. and Gregory XI., and has undergone various alterations and additions from 1430 till the present façade was erected in 1734. A modern extension has involved the destruction of the ancient apse. From the central balcony the Pope pronounces his benediction on Ascension day, and the church is the scene of the councils which bear its name.

Other churches are those of Santa Maria Maggiore (434); Santa Croce; San Clement, containing a number of interesting frescoes by Masaccio; Il Gesu, the principal church of the Jesuits, with the façade and cupola by Giacomo della Porta (1577); and an interior enriched with the rarest marbles and several fine paintings, and containing the monument of Cardinal Bellarmine; Sta. Maria-delli- Angeli, originally a part of Diocletian's Baths, converted into a church by Michelangelo, one of the most imposing which Rome possesses, and containing an ROME altarpiece by Muziano, a fine fresco by Domenichino, and the tomb of Salvator Rosa; Sta. Maria in Ara Cœli, on the Capitoline, a very ancient church approached by a very long flight of stairs, remarkable for its architecture and for containing the figure of the infant Christ called the santissimo bambino; Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, at the N. base of the Aventine, remarkable for its fine Alexandrine pavement and its lofty and beautiful campanile of the 8th century; Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, so called from occupying the site of a temple of that goddess, begun in 1285 and restored 1848-1855, remarkable as the only Gothic church in Rome; Sta. Maria in Dominica or della Navicella, on the Cælian, is remarkable for 18 fine columns of granite and two of porphyry, and the frieze of the nave painted in camieau by Giulio Romano and Perino del Vago.

Among other churches are Sta. Maria della Pace, celebrated for its paintings, particularly the four Sibyls, considered among the most perfect works of Raphael; Sta. Maria del Popolo, interesting from the number of its fine sculptures and paintings (Jonah by Raphael, ceiling frescoes by Pinturicchio, and mosaics from Raphael's cartoons by Aloisio della Pace); Sta. Maria in Trastevere, a very ancient church, first mentioned in 499 and San Paolo fuori le Mura.

Palaces, Picture Galleries, etc. - The Vatican, adjoining St. Peter's, comprises the old and new palaces of the Popes (the latter now the ordinary papal residence), the Sistine chapel, the Loggie and Stanze, containing some of the most important works of Raphael, the picture gallery, the museums (Pio-Clementino, Chiaramonti, Etruscan and Egyptian), and the library (220,000 volumes and over 25,000 MSS.). The palace of the Quirinal was formerly a favorite summer residence of the Popes, but is now occupied by the King of Italy. The Palazzo della Cancelleria is the only palace on the left bank of the river still occupied by the ecclesiastical authorities.

The building was designed by Bramante, and is one of the finest in Rome. A series of palaces crowns the summit of the Capitol, and surrounds the Piazza del Campidoglio. It is approached from the N. W. by a flight of steps, at the foot of which two Egyptian lions, and at the summit two colossal statues of Castor and Pollux standing beside their horses, are conspicuous. In the center of the piazza is a bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (161-181).

On the S. E. side of the piazza is the Senatorial Palace, in which the senate holds its meetings. The building also contains the offices of the municipal ad- ROME ministration and an observatory. Its façade was constructed by Giacomo della Porta, under the direction, it is said, of Michelangelo. On the S. W. side of the piazza is the palace of the Conservatori, containing a collection of antique sculpture, including objects of art discovered during the recent excavations, and a gallery of pictures. Opposite is the museum of the Capitol, with interesting objects of ancient sculpture and a picture gallery.

Among private palaces may be noted the Palazzo Barberini, on the Quirinal, with a collection of paintings. The library attached to it has numerous valuable MSS., with some other literary curiosities. The Palazzo Borghese, begun in 1590, has a fine court surrounded by lofty arcades, but is chiefly celebrated for its picture picture gallery, containing the Aldobrandi Marriage and some other Marriage and works of great renown. The Palazzo Colonna has a picture gallery and a beautiful garden containing several remains of antiquity. The Palazzo Corsini has a picture gallery, garden, and collection of MSS. and printed books of great value. The Palazzo Farnese, one of the finest in Rome, was built under the direction of Antonio da Sangallo, Michelangelo, and Giacomo della Porta in succession. The celebrated antiquities it once contained (Farnese Bull, Hercules, Flora, etc.), are now in the Museum of Naples. The Palazzo Rospigliosi, erected in 1603, contains some valuable art treasures; among others, on the ceiling of a casino in the garden is the celebrated fresco of Aurora by Guido. Villa Ludovisi, situated in the N. of the city, the ancient gardens of Sallust, contains a valuable collection of ancient sculptures. Villa Farnesina, on the right bank, containing Raphael's charming creations illustrative of the myth of Cupid and Psyche.

Educational Institutions, Charities, etc. -Among educational institutions the first place is claimed by the university, founded in 1303. The most flourishing period of the university was the time of Leo X. (1513-1522), under whom the building still occupied by it was begun. Attached to the university are an anatomical and a chemical theater, and cabinets of physics, mineralogy, and zoölogy, as also botanic gardens, and an astronomical observatory. The university is attended by about 2,700 students. The Collegio Romano, formerly a Jesuit college, now contains the Archæological Museum and the recently established library, Biblioteca Vittorio Emanueleconsisting mostly of the old library of the Jesuits, augmented by the libraries of suppressed monasteries (about 500,- ROME olic missionaries are trained. The Acca- as the establishment where Roman Cathof the fine arts, is composed of painters, demia di San Luca, for the promotion as the establishment where Roman Catholic missionaries are trained. The Accademia di San Luca, for the promotion of the fine arts, is composed of painters, sculptors, and architects, and was found ed in 1577 and reorganized in 1874.

Connected with it are a pic and schools of the fine arts. Other associations and institutions connected with picture gallery art, science, or learning are numerous; ciety of Italy. Besides the Vatican and temporaries, is the earliest scientific sofounded in 1603 by Galileo and his contemporaries, is the earliest scientific sous, ciety of above, the chief are the Biblioteca Caof Italy. Besides the Vatican and above, the chief are the Biblioteca Catary education much has been done since the Biblioteca Berberini. For elementhe papal rule came to an end. Hospitary education much has been done since the papal rule came to an end. Hospitals and other charitable foundations are numerous. clude the Teatro Apollo, Teatro Ar- Metastasio, Rossini, and the Costanzi. gentina, Teatro Valle, the Capranica, Metastasio, Rossini, and the Costanzi.

The chief theaters in- Trade and Manufactures-The external trade is unimportant, and is carried on chiefly by rail, the Tiber being navirailway lines connecting with the genrailway lines connecting with the general system of Italy; and steamers from Civita Vecchia to Naples, Leghorn, and eral system of Italy; and steamers from Genoa. has al The chief manufactures ROME capital of united Italy. The king took up his residence in the Quirinal; and to accommodate the legislature and various public departments numerous conventual establishments were expropriated. The population of the city has of late vastly increased. In 1870 it was 226,022; in 1881, 276,463; in 1901, 424,860; and in 1920, about 534,000. of the American School of Classical ican Academy in Rome, a consolidation