Science
in its widest significance the correlation of all knowledge. To know a truth in its relation to other truths is to know it scientifically. For example, the recognition that the alternation of day and night depends on the apparent daily motion of the sun is a distinct scientific achievement, being one of those elementary scientific truths which have been the possession of thinking minds from time immemorial.
The end of science is the rational interpretation of the facts of existence as disclosed to us by our faculties and senses.
The scientific method is essentially inductive, i. e., from particulars to generalities, and is to be contrasted with the method of philosophy which is deductive, i. e., from general truths to particular truths. This distinction was first clearly indicated by Francis Bacon and elaborated by Descartes and Comte. No better instance of pure and extensive and scientific research can be cited than that pursued by Darwin in his biological investigations.
Experiment is the great aid to scientific inquiry. In it we arbitrarily interfere with the circumstances of a phenomenon, or produce an entirely new phenomenon by an appropriate combination of causes. Contrasted with experi- SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ment is observation, in which we simply watch and record the events as they occur in nature. But even in astronomy, emphatically an observational science, experiment plays an important part. The dynamical knowledge which Newton developed into the cosmic law of gravitation was founded on experiment; and every time the astronomer points his telescope to a celestial object he experiments by arbitrarily interfering with the course of the rays of light. Meteorology again, which 20 years ago could hardly be called a science, has made great strides in these days by appealing to laboratory experiments for the elucidation of its phenomena.
Sciences may be grouped, or science partitioned, on a broad and intelligible principle. There are the physical sciences, which have to do with inorganic nature-i. e., with the laws and properties of matter, energy, and ether. Then there are the biological sciences, which consider the laws of life. And finally there are the psychical sciences, which deal with the phenomena of mind.
Numerous attempts have been made to give a detailed classification of the sciences, so as to bring out the natural relation of the one to the other. One of the most celebrated is the classification due to Comte, who first explicitly drew, the distinction between abstract and concrete sciences, or what might better be termed fundamental and derivative sciences (see POSITIVISM). From the present outlook of science the existences of the universe are five-namely, ether, matter, energy, life, and mind. The first three are inseparable agents in the simplest phenomenon that occurs in nature. They may ultimately be reduced to two or conceivably to one.
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT refers to the administration of industrial and other organizations according to methods based on laws deduced from facts accumulated by systematic observation. Its aims are many, among the most important being the elimination of wasted effort, increased output, the utilization of the special qualifications of every worker with a resultant improvement in both quality and quantity of product and greater contentment of the worker. The science may be said to be still in its infancy, as it has received serious consideration only since the latter party of last century.
It seeks to eliminate unnecessary effort by analyzing the movements made in performing any operation. It applies this analysis not only to human beings, but also to machinery or groups of machinery. By examining each motion separately, and then in its relation to the SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT I sequence of motions which result in the complete operation, it discovers those motions which are unnecessary and in this way is able to build up a system of operation which accomplishes the necessary work with the smallest loss of time and effort.
The advocates of scientific management are strong believers in specialization. They work on the theory that every man is fitted to accomplish one particular task better than any other; that because he can do it better, he will be happier in doing it; and that because he is happy in his work it will be done with the greatest possible efficiency and the least amount of friction. It follows from this that it is a fundamental of scientific management to seek out the special qualifications of every individual worker, and by training, teaching and encouragement to foster his individuality. The critics of the science protest that while such a system may be theoretically desirable, it is a practical impossibility. It is stated, however, that wherever it has been tried by those who have made a real study of it and have properly understood its principles, it has never been given up. As a necessary part of the development of each worker's individuality, more responsibility is placed upon him than is usual under the older system. In fact, Taylor, one of the leading exponents of the science of management, states that there should be an almost equal division of both work and responsibility between management and workman. He specifies, however, that this responsibility should be clearly defined in other words, that every worker should know and understand the exact nature of the task he is expected to perform and that such conditions should exist that the daily work can always be accomplished. He advocates high pay as a reward for successful work with accompanying low pay in case of failure, thereby apparently coming in sharp conflict with the advocates of a uniform wage. He considers hearty co-operation between management and men a necessity for the successful working of the system. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT of specialists, each in charge of a department, and each, in his own department, of equal authority to the rest. A sharp division is first made between planning and performing. Five specialists control each division. On the planning side there is first the superintendent, whose task is to choose and advise the other specialists, and to see that the right man is in charge of each department. Then comes the Order of Work and Route Man, who organizes the order in which work wor is done, and the route through the factory which an article follows in the course_of manufacture. Thirdly, there is the Instruction Card man, whose duty it is to see that each workman is trained in his particular job, and to organize educational work to that end. Next comes the Time and Cost Clerk, who keeps records of time and money spent on each manufacturing process and so assists in checking waste and promoting efficiency. Finally, there is the Disciplinarian, who studies, as it were, the psychological side of f factory life, investigates the causes of dissatisfaction among the workers, or of jealousy among the executives, who smoothes out trouble and seeks to make the work run evenly and without friction.
In the Performing Department there is the Gang Boss or, as some prefer to call him, the Instructor. In co-operation with the Instruction Card man he trains the workers in their tasks, brings out the individual talents in each man and so enables him to attain his highest possible productive efficiency. Next is the Speed Boss, who controls the machinery of production, and takes care that the manufacturing process runs at the speed of maximum efficiency. Thirdly comes the Repair Boss, whose duty it is to keep the machines in working order so that there is a minimum loss of time due to breakdowns. Next, is the Inspector of Quality, who passes on the quality of the goods produced, and finally there is the Individual Workman. The supporters of such a system of Scientific Management claim for it that it increases output, decreases cost of production, raises wages, eliminates waste, and leads to a spirit of contentment and co-operation among the workers. Its opponents scoff at it as Utopian and unworkable. An intermediate opinion would probably be nearest the truth. As stated in the early part of this article, the sci-
In its details of organization, scientific management differs from the older type, in that it seeks to get away from the military idea of management, which has a single man at the head and a number of subordinates beneath him in a descending order of power, each man being re-ence is still more or less in the experisponsible to the one above him and in command of all those below him. Just as it aims to develop the special talents of each individual worker, so it makes use of the special qualifications of each individual in the executive staff, and divides the responsibility among a group mental stage. Many of the details have still to be tried out, probably some unnecessary matter will be eliminated, and much will be added. It will be found that many, if not most, large industries, today, display in their working a mixture of both the older and the newer scheme- SCILLY ISLANDS The need for some improvement in the old rule-of-thumb methods is generally recognized, and industry undoubtedly owes a debt to those who have studied the subject from the scientific viewpoint.
In some cases it has been quick to adopt and profit by their suggestions, and even in the most conservative factories, it will be found that many of their ideas have permeated, to the general benefit.