Spain
a kingdom in the S. W. of Europe, forming with Portugal the great S. W. peninsula of Europe. It is separated from France on the N. E. by the chain of the Pyrenees, and is otherwise bounded by Portugal and the Atlantic and Mediterranean. In greatest breadth N. and S. it measures 540 miles; greatest length E. and W., 620 miles. Continental area, 190,055 square miles. Including the 'Canary and Balearic islands and north and west African possessions, 194,- 783 square miles. Pop., about 20,400,000.
The war with the United States deprived her of Cuba, Porto Rico, the Philippine and Sulu islands, and Guam; and a treaty with Germany, Feb. 8, 1899, of the Marianne (or Ladrone), rone), Caroline, and Pelew islands. On Nov. 8, 1900, Spain sold the islands of Cagayan and Sibutu to the United States for $100,000. Her last remaining colonies are in Africa with pop. 292,000. Spain formerly comprised the ancient kingdoms and provinces of New and Old Castile, Leon, Asturias, Galicia, Estremadura, Andalusia, Aragon, Murcia, Valencia, Cata- Ionia, Navarre, and the Basque Provinces. These since 1854, for administrative purposes, have been divided into 49 provinces, including the Balearic and Canary islands. The capital is Madrid; next in population are Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, and Malaga. Physical Features. The coast line is not much broken, but sweeps round in gentle curves, presenting few remarkable headlands or indentations. The SPAIN interior is considerably diversified, but its characteristic feature is its central table-land, which has an elevation of from 2,200 to 2,800 feet, and a superficial extent of not less than 90,000 square miles. It descends gradually on the W. toward Portugal; but on the E., toward the provinces of Catalonia and Valencia, it presents an abrupt steep or line of cliffs, with the character of an ancient sea margin. It is bounded on the N. by the Asturian and Cantabrian mountains, reaching an elevation of about 8,500 feet; on the S. by the Sierra Morena; and is crossed from E. to W. by the Douro, Tagus, and Guadiana rivers. Between these limits it is intersected by two important ranges of mountains running nearly E. and W., the N. being the Guadarrama with its continuations, separating the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, and attaining in one of its peaks a height of 8,200 feet; and the S., the Sierra de Toledo and its continuation between the Tagus and the Guadiana. S. of the Sierra Morena is the valley of the Guadalquivir river. Besides these ranges there is the chain of the Pyrenees, which, though partly belonging to France, presents its boldest front to Spain and has its loftiest summits within it. The highest peak in the ranges is La Maladetta or Pic de Nethou (11,165 feet); but the highest peak in Spain is Mulhacen (11,420 feet), belonging to the Sierra Nevada in the S. The latter chain possesses some of the wildest scenery in Europe. The chief rivers enter the Atlantic, but in the N.
E. is the Ebro, a tributary of the Mediterranean. The Douro, Tagus, and Guadiana belong partly to Portugal. The lakes are few and unimportant.
Minerals. The whole country teems with mineral wealth, the minerals including in greater or less quantities gold, silver, quicksilver, lead, copper, iron, zinc, calamine, antimony, tin, coal, etc. The exploitation of the minerals has, however, in recent times been mostly accomplished by foreign capital, while most of the ore is exported to foreign countries in its raw state. The quantity and value of the principal minerals produced in 1918 was as follows: Anthracite coal, 377,216 metric tons, valued at 21,226,434 pesetas; copper, 1,007,668 metric tons, valued at 19,121,- 407 pesetas; iron, 4,692,651 metric tons, valued at 52,889,055 pesetas; bituminous coal, 6,134,986 metric tons, valued at 341,251,718 pesetas; lignite coal, 726,848 metric tons, valued at 26,581,717 pesetas; lead, 216,133 metric tons, valued at 60,751,403 pesetas. Other mineral products are asphalt, mercury, sulphur, zinc, phosphate, manganese, silver, salt, SPAIN and wolfram. There are about 135,000 persons engaged in the mineral industry.
The total value of the output of 1918 was 545,916,704 pesetas.
Climate. The climate varies much in different localities. On the elevated table-land it is both colder in winter and hotter in summer than usual under the same latitude. In the plains and on the coasts the hot summer is followed by a cold rainy season, terminating in April in a beautiful spring. The mean temperature at Malaga in summer is 77° F., in winter 57°; at Barcelona 77° and 50°; and at Madrid 75° and 44.6°. The rainfall is small; in the interior between 8 and 12 inches per annum. In some parts of the S. the climate is almost tropical. The hot S. wind of Andalusia, known as the solano, and the cold N. wind called the gallego, are peculiar to Spain.
Vegetable Products and Agriculture.- About one-sixth of the acreage is under wood; the more remarkable trees being the Spanish chestnut and several varieties of oak, and in particular the cork oak. Fruits are extremely abundant, and include, in addition to apples, pears, cherries, plums, peaches, and apricots, the almond, date, fig fig, orange, citron, olive, and pomegranate; and in the lower districts of the S. the pineapple and banana. The culture of the vine is general, and great quantities of wine are made, both for home consumption and exportation. The more important farm crops are wheat, rice, maize, barley and legumes. In the S. cotton and the sugar cane are grown. Hemp and flax, esparto, the mulberry for rearing silk worms, saffron, licorice, are also to be mentioned. The only large animals in a wild state are the wolf, common in all the mountainous districts, and the bear and chamois, found chiefly in the Pyrenees. Domestic animals include the merino sheep in great numbers, horses, mules, asses, horned cattle, and pigs.
The chief agricultural products in 1919 were as follows: Wheat, 77,- 660,040 cwt.; barley, 33,946,488 cwt.; oats, 9,597,534 cwt.; rye, 12,295,808 cwt.; maize, 14,920,464 cwt. Other important products are rice, beans, kidney beans, peas, lentils, and tares. In 1919 3,300,- 965 acres were employed in grape cultivation. The production was 7,914,252,- 192 pounds of grapes, yielding 543,- 904,788 gallons of wine. There are about 4,000,000 acres devoted to olive culture.
The other important products esparto, flax, hemp, and pulse. There are important industries connected with the preparation of wine and fruits. Silk culture is carried on in Valencia, Murcia, and other provinces. There are are SPAIN about 30 sugar cane factories and about 40 beet root sugar factories.
Manufactures and Commerce. The manufactures of Spain are not as a whole important, but considerable advances have been made in recent times. The most important industries are the manufacture of cotton, woolens and linens, cutlery and metal goods, paper, silk, leather, tobacco, and cigars, besides wine, flour, and oil. There are about 750 concerns engaged in the manufacture of cotton. These employ about 70,000 looms with about 2,700,000 spindles. In woolen manufacture there are about 9,000 looms with about 665,000 spindles. The paper-making industry There are about 150 is of importance. The paper mills engaged in the making of writing, printing, packing, and cigarette paper. Other important industries are glass making and the manufacture of corks. The total imports in 1918 were valued at $24,394,077. The exports were valued at £37,917,084. The chief articles of import were cotton and its manufac- tures, foodstuffs, machinery, tobacco, gold, animals, wool, hair and silk. The chief articles of export are food stuffs and wine, metals and their manufacand wine, metals and their manufac- tures, drug and chemical products, cot- ton and its manufactures, wool and its manufactures, timber and its manufactures, and animals and their products. The total value of wine exported in 1918 was £3,725,137. The larger number of imports are received from the United States, the United Kingdom, and The chief exports are to France.
France, United Kingdom, and the United States.
Transportation. There are about 10,- 000 miles of railway, of which about 7,000 are of normal gauge and about 4,000 of varying gauges. In October, 1919, the first underground electric railway service in Spain was inaugurated in Madrid, which covers a distance of about 5 miles. The railway systems belong to private companies but are nearly all subsidized by the government. There are about 70,000 miles of telegraph line and there is wireless connection with all important countries. The merchant navy consisted in 1919 of 475 steamers of 691,328 tons net, and 448 sailing vessels of 74,970 tons net.
The chief shipping centers are Bilbao and Barcelona.
Finances. The total revenue in 1919 was 1,648,800,000 pesetas, and the expenditure 2,065,065,000 pesetas. The esand Barcelona. 830,000 pesetas, and the estimated expenditure 2,373,155,000 pesetas. The national debt on January 1, 1920, amounted to 12,026,280,212 pesetas.
SPAIN Education. A very large proportion law is not strictly enforced. There are about 27,000 public schools and about 6,000 private schools. The total numthe last date for which authoritative statistics are available, nearly 60 per cent. could neither read nor write. Eduthe government, which spent in 1918 law is not strictly enforced. There are about 27,000 public schools and about and primary schools are supported by 6,000 private schools. The total number of pupils is about 2,700,000. Public the government, which spent in 1918 43,726,597 pesetas for educational purposes. Secondary education is carried on in institutions or middle class schools, of which there must be at least one in every province. There are about 60 of these institutions, with about 55,000 pupils. There are 11 universities, whi were attended by about 25,000 students.
These universities is a medical school at Cadiz and one in the Canary Islands. ladolid, and Saragossa. In addition there is a medical school at Cadiz and one in the Canary Islands. which are at Barcelona,
Army and Navy. - Military service is compulsory for a total period of 18 years. A general staff was established in 1916. The country is divided into 8 territorial districts, each under a captain-general. The peace strength of the were in Morocco. The army is organarmy in 1920 was fixed at 216,649 men of all ranks. Of these, about 65,000 ized into 16 divisions, each including two brigades of infantry and one of cruisers. artillery. There is a corps of aviators and the service in military aviation has navy consists of three dreadnoughts, one been reorganized on a large scale. The A number of pre-dreadnought, and There were in 1920, in addition to 13 destroyers, 26 modern torpedo boats, and 12 gun boats. cruisers, destroyers, submarines, and other similar vessels were under con- struction in 1921. The total strength other similar vessels were under construction in 1921. The total strength of the navy is about 10,500 sailors and about 4,500 marines. Government.-By the constitution of about 4,500 marines. seven Government.- By the constitution of 1876 Spain is declared a constitutional monarchy, with executive power vested in the king, and the legislative power in the Cortes with the king. The Cortes consists of a Senate and Congress. The Senate is composed of three classes: cial position, members nominated by the Senate is composed of three classes: crown (these two classes not numbering Those who sit by right of birth or offimore than 180 together), and 180 elected by the largest taxpayers of the kingdom and certain corporate bodies.
The Congress contains 417 deputies, municipality for two years. Voting is elected by citizens of 25 years of age who have enjoyed full civil rights in any SPAIN compulsory for males of 25 or over.
Each province has its own parliament, and each commune its own elected ayuntamiento presided over by the alcalde, for municipal and provincial administration.
People and Religion. The people of Spain are of very mixed origin, the most ancient inhabitants, the Iberians (now represented probably by the Basques or Biscayans of the N. E.), being afterward mingled with Celts, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, Roman colonists, Goths, Jews, and Arabs or Moors. They are generally of medium height and of spare habit, with black hair, dark eyes, and sallow complexion. Under the constitution the state binds itself to maintain the Roman Catholic religion, but a restricted liberty of worship is permitted to Protestants, of whom, however, there are very few. There are nine archbishops, the Archbishop of Toledo being primate. Houses for monks no longer exist, having been abolished by law in 1841.
History. Spain was first known to the Phœnicians, subsequently to the Carthaginians, and, in the 3d century B. C., to the Romans. It was completely subdued under Augustus, after which it enjoyed tranquillity for nearly 400 years. This state of peace was disturbed by the irruption of the Northern barbarians, the Suevi, the Vandals, and the Alani.
Christianity was introduced about the end of the 6th century; the invasion of the Moors took place in the beginning of the 8th; and they overran the whole country except the Asturias. They were finally expelled in 1492. Under Charles V., Spain made a great figure in the general affairs of Europe. He reigned 40 years, and in 1556 abdicated in favor of his son, Philip II., who died in 1598 and bequeathed to his successor, Philip III., Belgium, Naples, Sicily, and Portugal. Charles II., the last prince of the Austrian branch, reigned from 1665 to 1700; after which began the well-known war for the succession to the Spanish dominions, in which the claim of Austria was supported by the grand alliance against Louis XIV. Notwithstanding the opposition of the Allies, however, the grandson of Louis XIV. reigned in Spain, relinquishing the Belgic provinces to the house of Austria. Philip V., the first king of the French line, had a long and turbulent reign. After him Ferdinand VI., a prudent prince, introduced various reforms and maintained peace, but dying in 1759 his son, Charles III., went to war with Great Britain.
Peace ensued in 1763 and continued till 1778, when Spain, at first neutral in the American War of Independence, was pre- SPAIN vailed on to take up arms against England, and obtained, at the peace of 1783, the Floridas and the island of Minorca.
Charles IV. succeeded to the crown in 1788, became soon after a party to the coalition against Republican France; but was, after Prussia, the first of the Great Powers to conclude a treaty of peace, in 1795. In little more than a year afterward, the cabinet of Spain joined its late opponent and declared war against England. The abdication of the royal family of Spain took place at Bayonne in May, 1808. It was followed by the general resistance of the inhabitants, by the invasion of their country by Napoleon I., and by the subsequent expulsion of the French by the troops of Great Britain combined with those of Portugal and Spain. The dissatisfaction and indignation excited by the tyrannical proceedings of Ferdinand led, in the beginning of 1820, to a revolution of great importance, by which the constitution of the Cortes, as established in 1812, was restored, and such salutary restraints established on the power of the crown as seemed best calculated for securing the rights of the people. In 1823 Spain was again invaded by French troops under the Duke d'Angoulême, whose object was to put down the new government and to restore Ferdinand to absolute power. They penetrated the country without resistance; and having laid siege to Cadiz, the king was given up to them, and afterward the town. In 1833, on the death of Ferdinand VII., the queenmother, Christina, was appointed queen-regent during the minority of her daughter Isabella, to whom, by his will, he bequeathed his throne. On this, Don Carlos, the late king's brother, laid claim to the crown, when a civil war which lasted till 1840 ensued. In that year the partisans of Don Carlos were finally defeated. The next event of importance was the contest between Espartero, the regent, and the Queen-Dowager Christina, for the supreme power during the minority of the queen. Espartero was successful from 1840 to 1843, but was compelled to flee before O'Donnell and Narvaez, and was not restored till 1847.
Espartero's success obliged Christina to retire to France, whence she returned after his fall, Narvaez and the Moderados having control of the government. Isabella was now declared of age, married her cousin, Francis d'Assisi, and succeeded to the throne as Isabella II.
During her reign the Liberals and Conservatives successively gained control of the government. The disputes finally ended in a successful revolt of the Liberals, the queen being obliged to fly to SPAIN France, and the throne being offered in 1870 to Amadeus, a son of Victor Emanuel. Finding his task too difficult, he resigned in 1873. A republic was now formed, with Castelar as its leading spirit, but it was soon brought to an end, and the throne was offered in 1874 to Alfonso, the young son of the exiled Queen İsabella. Alfonso XII. died in 1885; and on the birth of a posthumous son, May 17, 1886, the regency was intrusted to his widow, Christina. In 1902 this son came to the throne under the title of Alfonso XIII.
Long disturbed conditions in Cuba resulted, in 1898, in war with the United States. See SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR; CUBA. Alfonso became of age in 1902 and the regency was terminated. During the years following, changes in the cabinet occurred with great frequency. In 1904 closer relations were established with France, in regard to the common policy in Morocco.
On May 31, 1906, King Alfonso married Princess Ena of Battenberg, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria of England. During 1908-09 there was an outbreak of anarchistic activities and an attempted revolution occurred at Barcelona. This led to the trial and execution of the Anarchist Ferrer. Several reforms in the religious system were undertaken and put into effect in 1910-11. At the outbreak of the World War, in 1914, Spain at once declared its neutrality and this was continued throughout the conflict. There was strong pressure brought to bear at various times to induce the government to take sides with either of the belligerents, and several changes in the cabinet were the result of these endeavors. When the war broke out a Conservative cabinet was in power. This was forced to resign in June, 1915, and was succeeded by a Liberal cabinet led by Count Romanones.
The Liberals and their supporters demanded improvement in the economic conditions of the country, which resulted in 1915-16 in industrial disturbances throughout the country. There were strikes in Madrid, Valencia, and other industrial circles. These reached a crisis in 1916 when a general strike was declared. This was met promptly by the government with the declaration of martial law throughout the country.
This resulted at once in an agreement on the part of the strikers to arbitrate their demands. In the beginning of 1917 a determined effort was made to bring Spain openly to the support of the Allies. This resulted in greatly increased activity on the part of the pro- German elements. The renewal of submarine warfare and the entrance of the