Thermo Barometer
an instru-vance in elucidating the theories underment for measuring altitudes by means of determining the boiling point of water. They consist essentially of a small metallic vessel for boiling water, fitted with very delicate thermometers, which are only graduated from 80° to 100°; so that each degree occupying a considerable space on the scale, the tenths, and even the hundredths of a degree, may be estimated, and thus it is possible to determine the height of a place by means of the boiling point to within about 10 feet. lying thermo-chemical phenomena. Three of the fundamental principles which he laid down are: a (1) The thermal change due to chemical reaction depends (providing no external work is done) only on the condition of the system at the beginning and end of the reaction, and not on the intermediate conditions. (2) The heat evolved in a chemical reaction is a measure of the corresponding physical and chemical work. (3) Every chemical change which occurs without the addition of external en-
THERMO CHEMISTRY. All chemi-ergy tends to produce that substance cal reactions are accompanied by changes in temperature. Exactly when this fact was first observed, observed, it is impossible to say, but it must have been in the very early years of chemical investigation, for the phenomenon is so marked that or system of substances the formation of which is accompanied by the evolution of the maximum amount of heat. This generalization is found to be not true in every case, but it applies to so many instances that it is generally held THERMO CHEMISTRY to indicate some natural law which is not, at present, fully understood.
The Heat of Formation of a substance is the amount of heat liberated or absorbed when the substance is produced by a direct combination of the elements to determine the heat of formation on gram-molecular weights; so that, quan- titatively, the heat of formation of any substance is expressed as the amount of heat liberated or absorbed when a gram- molecular weight of the substance is formed by combination of its elements.
In those cases where compounds cannot be formed from direct combination of elements, it is necessary to determine the heat of formation indirectly. This is commonly done by first burning the elements in oxygen, then burning the compound in oxygen, and determining in each case the heat liberated. The prodeach case the heat liberated. The prod- ucts of combustion will, in each case, be the same, so that the difference in the heat liberated in the two cases will give the heat of formation of the compound. coloration.