Toole
JOHN LAURENCE, an English comedian; born in London, March 12, 1832. His father was well known in the city as civic toastmaster. While a clerk in a wine merchant's office, he devoted his leisure to private theatricals with a success which induced him to take to the stage as a profession. Toole made his first public appearance at the Haymarket Theater on July 22, 1852, on the occasion of a benefit to Mr. Webster. After a was engaged at St. James Theater in thorough training in the provinces he 1854. Thence he passed to the Lyceum, and an engagement of several years as leading comedian at the New Adelphi followed. He made a professional tour in the United States in 1875, and in TOOLS AND MACHINERY hand work to machine work, not, of course, resulting in the total exclusion of the former by the latter.
Almost with the beginning of the more general use of machines, an extended controversy arose regarding its effect on industry. There is no doubt that the substitution of machinery for hand tools and of machine work for hand work has far-reaching and deep effects on employment, the individual laborer, output, and quality. Just what the ultimate effects are is still a matter of controversy. Undoubtedly, whenever hand work is changed to machine work in a given field of endeavor, there occurs at first a serious displacement of existing employment conditions. As a rule the use of machinery involves the employment of fewer persons, and in many instances it also does away with the need hand, as machinery becomes gradually for highly skilled labor. On the other adopted in a given field, the result frequently, if not always, is a widening of this field, and, therefore, eventually need for larger numbers of workmen. Then, too, as machinery is gradually developed Australia in 1891, and with these excep- and becomes more complicated, there tions he appeared regularly in every again arises a need for more skilled season in London for many years, latterly labor. in a theater under his own management.
In the same manner, the individual His strength lay in broad and even farworkman is affected. The use of macical humor. Many farces, such as the chinery undoubtedly tends, in many in- "Area Belle," "Ici On Parle Français," stances, towards mere routine labor. "The Spitalfields Weaver," "The Pretty Horsebreaker," and "The Steeplechase," One and the same process frequently is repeated over and over again. Naturowe their popularity almost entirely to ally, this requires a lower grade of menhis versatility; and among his most tality in the laborer than was needed prominent and successful impersonations when a large number of diversified are Paul Pry, Caleb Plummer in "The processes had to be performed by one Cricket on the Hearth," Joe Bright in and the same individual. On the other "Through Fire and Water," Uncle Dick in "Uncle Dick's Darling," and Chawles hand, the laborer frequently is enabled in "A Fool and His Money." He died July 30, 1906.
TOOLS AND MACHINERY. The history of tools goes back to the very beginning of human life. First, of course, tools were used exclusively for agricultural purposes, and for a long period were of the most primitive nature. by the use of machinery to increase his earnings. It may, therefore, be said that while the use of machinery is at times apt to have a disadvantageous influence on the laborers' mentality, it is just as apt to greatly improve his material comforts. There is no doubt that the use of machinery instead of hand work has As human activities became more com- resulted in vastly increased output. plex, the use of tools spread rapidly. Indeed, in many instances, the invention Their development, however, for a long of a given piece of machinery was more time, was very slow. This did not or less forced by the absolute necessity change until steam, electricity, and to increase output, either in order to water power became available for gen- meet increased demand, or else in order eral use. Not until then were many to reduce costs. tools developed into machinery.
The most remarkable and diversified improvements in tools and machinery took place beginning with the latter half of the nineteenth century. Gradually in many industries, and somewhat later, in agriculture, a change took place from It is claimed by many that the quality of machine products is much lower than that of similar products produced by hand work. While this is without doubt true in many instances, it is, to a certain extent, offset by the greater uniformity.
Then, too, it must be remembered that TOOLS AND MACHINERY many products which now supply some ments, the most important of which is of the most important needs of our daily life were not available until machines had been invented by means of which they could be produced.
The various kinds of machinery which are used today in civilized countries are so numerous that even a condensed list is impossible. Hardly any human endeavor today is carried on without the use of some kind of machinery. Most machinery is driven by power other than human. Animal, steam, electric and water power all are employed in connection with the use of machinery. 433 TOOLS AND MACHINERY Agricultural Implements. - This term is commonly used to designate all tools, machinery, and other implements employed in the manifold processes connected with farming. The most ancient agricultural implements were, without doubt, restricted to those which required human strength only. All agricultural work for many centuries used the separator. This implement has proven a great saver of labor and in various other ways has wrought such changes in the dairy industry that it has become revolutionized. Other dairy machinery of importance include butter workers, cheese presses, cheese vats, hand and power churns, etc.
The plow is one of the most important agricultural implements, being used for breaking up the soil and for inverting the upper strata. The two principal types are sod plows and stubble plows.
The latter is generally represented in American plows. The first American patent was granted to Charles Newbold, in 1797. Newbold's plow was made of cast iron. The modern American plow, however, is based on a plow patented in 1819 by Jethro Wood. This, too, was made of cast iron. John Lane in 1836, and John Deere in 1837, substituted steel for cast iron. There are many special double-furrow plows, disc plows, etc. Steam and electricity is frequently used in connection with plows. The most recent development has been the gasoline tractor. The use of power other than horse power is especially advantageous on large farms and in places where fuel is cheaper than horses and feed, and where land is level.
The harrow is an implement used for covering seeds, for destroying weeds, for producing dust mulch for the purpose of conserving moisture, and for smoothing and pulverizing plowed land. There are four principal modern types of harrows, the curved knife and pulverizing, the disc, the smoothing, and the spring tooth harrow. or gang plows, sulky to be done by the use of fiails, hoes, kinds of plows, such as sub-soil plows, rakes, scythes, sickles, and spades. All hillside or swivel plows, double moldof these were worked by hand. When board plows, trench or ditching plows, animal power became available to do some of the work which human beings had formerly done, there appeared primitive harrows and plows. Not until more comparatively modern times were other forms of farming implements and machinery invented and developed. During the nineteenth century especially, this development made vast progress. Indeed, many of the most useful pieces of farming machinery were not invented until then. Today, practically every operation required in farming is performed by means of some machine or implement. Just as is the case with machinery used in fields of human endeavor other than farming, electric, steam, water, wind, and other artificial forms of power are gradually supplanting hand and animal power. The soil now is prepared for planting by specially Cultivators are agricultural implements used for destroying weeds, for loosening the soil between rows of plants, and with various levers for the control of the implement, are called rider cultivators. Simpler forms are designated as walker cultivators. constructed plows, harrows, fertilizing for preparing the soil for planting, and machines, and other cultivators. Plant- for other similar purposes. Cultivators ing is done by means of mechanical provided with a seat for the operator planters and seeders. Crops are harvested by means of mechanical hay rakes, hay forks, mowers, reapers, and a large variety of other harvesting implements, each adapted for its special use. After the crops have been gathered, mechanical threshing machines, fanning mills, hullers, huskers, shellers, and other seed separators are employed.
That branch of agriculture devoted to the production and utilization of milk, dairying, has also vastly progressed as a result of the invention and introduction of numerous forms of dairy machinery.
Included in these are creaming imple- Reaping and mowing machines are of comparatively modern development.
Several machines were invented in England in the latter part of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth century. In 1822 Henry Ogle patented a side-draft machine which included some of the essential features of modern reapers, such as reels, a reciprocating knife over stationary finger, dividers, and platform. The first American patent for a } TOOLS AND MACHINERY reaping machine was granted in 1803 to Richard French and T. J. Hawkins, of New Jersey. Peter Gaillard, of Pennsylvania, in 1812, patented the first grass cutting machine. This was superseded in 1822 by another grass cutter, patented by Jeremiah Bailey, also of Pennsylvania. The latter machine was built on the revolving-cutter plan, with side draft, arranged so as to keep the cutter at a uniform distance from the ground. Of various other machines invented during this period, that of William Manning, of New Jersey (1831), possessed a cutting device which resembled very closely that used later by Hussey and McCormick. It was these two later inventors who, the former in 1833, and the latter in 1834, took out patents for improved reaping machines which combined the best features of all the various machines which up to that time had been brought out in England and in America. There was comparatively little difference between the Hussey and the McCormick reaper. The latter had a serrated edge knife which, instead of the pointed sections of Hussey's machine, possessed a wavy outline It also had a divider and reels, but no seat for the attendant. It was a sidedraft machine and could be either drawn or pushed. These two machines formed the basis of later reapers which have now been brought to a high state of perfection.
Self-acting rakes date back to 1848, when Nelson Platt patented such an implement. Great improvements have been made since then, some of the most important appearing in a machine built by McCormick in 1861.
Binding of grain by machinery was first attempted by John E. Heath, of Ohio, in 1850. His binder used twine or cord. Later machines used also straw and wire. The modern binder is based chiefly on a machine patented in 1858, and known as the Marsh harvester.
The combined header and thresher is most likely the most complicated and at TOOLS AND MACHINERY a Threshing machines are implements used to separate the grain or seed of plants from the straw or haulm. Not until the end of the eighteenth century did various attempts to supersede the primitive flail by mechanical implements succeed. In 1786 a Scotch mechanic, Andrew Meikle, designed threshing machine which, in spite of the fact that many inventors have tried to improve it, remains today essentially the same. Practically all modern threshing machines are based on the principles first developed by Meikle. In America greatly improved threshing machines are now in use, most of the improvements having been made since 1840. The most up-todate threshing machine performs mes chanically practically all operations involving the cutting of the bands of the sheaves, automatic feeding, thorough separation of grain from straw, winnowing and weighing the grain, depositing it in sacks or loading it into wagons, and removing and stacking the straw.
Although there are in existence special threshing machines adapted to different kinds of grain and to a large variety of conditions, the parts of the most modern thresher are so adjustable that one and the same machine can be used for all kinds of grain and under all kinds of conditions.
Amongst the more important special threshing machines should be mentioned those for threshing beans, clover, peanuts, peas and rice, and others for husking maize, and shredding fodder. As a rule, bean and pea threshers are equipped with two cylinders which run at different rates of speed. Still another additional cylinder for hulling is usually to be found in clover hullers. Many important and useful accessory devices have been invented which are used in connection with threshing machines. The most important of these are automatic band cutters and feeders, loaders, stackers, and grain measurers. In the early days of the threshing machine, horse power was used most frequently and it is still used the same time the most advanced type to a considerable extent. However, portof harvester. It heads, threshes, cleans, able steam engines and internal combusand sacks the grain at one operation. tion engines are gradually superseding It is used extensively in certain parts horse power. In those parts of the western United States and Australia. Such machines are usually pushed through the grain either by a traction engine or by horses, a large number of the latter being necessary for each machine, the capacity of which ranges from 60 to 125 acres per day.
Mowing machines have kept step with the development of reaping machines, and, indeed, many mowers are designed so as to be used as reapers also.
United States where rice is cultivated engines with straw-burning furnaces have been used and have given satisfaction.
Nowhere else has more progress been made in the use of farming machinery than in the United States, and the remarkable productivity and prosperity which agriculture enjoys in this country are to no slight degree due to this fact.
The last United States census of the TOOLS AND MACHINERY manufacturers (1914) shows 601 establishments devoted to the manufacture of agricultural implements of all kinds.
These employed 58,118 persons; had a capital of $338,531,673; paid salaries and wages amounting to $47,603,790; and produced goods valued at $164,068,835.
The export of agricultural implements from this country to foreign countries is of importance and is steadily growing.
In 1890 the value of agricultural implements from the United States was $3,- 859,184. By 1900 it had increased to $16,099,149. It then remained stationary for the next two years, increasing slowly until 1905, when it amounted to $20,721,- 741. In 1910 it had reached $28,124,033.
In the last year previous to the World War (1913) it reached the large sum of $40,572,352. The effect of the World War was especially noticeable in the agricultural implement industry. In 1914 the exports had fallen to about $32,000,000, and in 1915 to $10,300,000, a figure lower than any since 1898. A slight improvement was shown in 1916, with total exports of over $17,600,000; these rose, in 1917, to over $26,500,000; in 1918 to over $35,000,000; and in 1919 to $41,195,494, the highest total yet achieved. This, however, was exceeded in 1920, when the exports of agricultural TOOTH divided by Owen into hard or true den. tine, vaso-dentine, and osteo-dentine, consists of an organized animal basis, disposed in the form of extremely minute tubes and cells, and of earthy particles.
The tubes and cells contain, besides the calcareous particles, a colorless fluid, which is probably transuded blood plasma, or liquor sanguinis, and contributes to the nutrition of the dentine. In hard 6-8 FIRST TEETH 7-9 -18-20 12-15 20 The figures refer to months after birth or true dentine the dentinal tubes proceed from the hollow of the tooth known implements were valued at $46,277,269. as the pulp cavity, in a slightly wavy an