Home › T › Turkey (OTTOMAN EM- PIRE Prior)

Turkey (OTTOMAN EM- PIRE Prior)

or the OTTOMAN EM- PIRE. Prior to the World War Turkey was composed of Turkey in Europe, Turkey in Asia, and certain islands in the Mediterranean. Considerable territory was lost following the conclusion of the First Balkan War (November, 1913).

Turkey in Europe was in part divided among Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece, and in part created into an independent state of Albania. Cyprus and Egypt, which formerly were included in the Ottoman empire, were annexed to the British empire, the first in November, 1914, and the second in January, 1915.

By the terms of the Peace Treaty of the Allied nations, signed on May 11, 1920, the area of the empire was still further reduced. Turkey ceded practically all of Thrace to Greece, as well as Tenedos and Imbros, and the islands in the Ægean, occupied by Greece. Smyrna, with the surrounding strip of territory, was to be administered by Greece under Turkish sovereignty for five years, after which the territory might annex itself to Greece by plebiscite. By the terms of a later agreement, signed on March 17, 1921, Smyrna was returned to Turkey. Mesopotamia, Palestine, Armenia, and Hedjaz became independent. The first three were placed under mandatories. Kurdestan was to be autonomous. Several islands in the Ægean were ceded to Italy. Turkey retained Constantinople, but the coastal area of the Dardanelles, Marmora, and Bosporus was placed under the control of the Commission of the Straits appointed by the League of Nations. The area taken from Turkey was 438,757 square miles, with a population of about 12,000,000. The area of the remaining territory is 174,900 square miles. with a ap population of about 8,000,000. In the territory remaining under Turkish rule, Moslems greatly preponderate. In Asi- TURKEY The ment with about 4,000,000 Arabs, besides menians, Jews, and other races. The chief towns remaining under Turkish rule and their populations, are as folmenians, Jews, and other races. chief towns remaining under Turkish ); Brusrule and their populations, are as follows: Constantinople,

1,000,000 ; sa, 110,000; Kerbela, 65,000; Sivas, 65,000; Trebizond, 55,000. fertile. The chief

Production and Industry.-Agriculture is carried on according to the most primitive methods in nearly all parts of the empire, although the soil, for the most part, is extremely fertile. The chief part, is extremely ferti products are tobacco, cereals, cotton, figs, nuts, almonds, grapes, olives, and other varieties of fruit. There are in Asiatic Turkey about 17,000,000 acres under cultivation. The principal tobacco districts are Samsun, Bafra, and Charchambe. The production in 1917 was valued at 650,363 Turkish pounds. The cotton output is about 200,000 bales annually. About 21,000,000 acres of land are under forest.

Commerce. The latest figures available are for 1916 and 1917. In that year the imports were valued at 22,105,304 Turkish pounds, and the exports at 34,- 058,581 Turkish pounds. As Turkey was at that time under the practical rule of Germany, by far the largest portion of her exports were to that country. The imports were received chiefly from Germany and Austria-Hungary. England, prior to the war, had the largest proportion of trade. Industrial and commercial conditions during 1919 were normal and were marked by high prices, large production, and speculation. During that year nearly one half the trade of Constantinople was with Russia, and the remainder was with the Balkan states and with other parts of Turkey, The chief imports were cotton, wool, linen and silk textiles, ready-made clothing, leather goods, and food of all kinds. The chief exports were tobacco, wool and linen and silk textiles, ready-made clothbeans, and nuts. ing, leather goods, and food of all kinds. provinces of Asia are rich in n minerals, which, however, have been little worked.

There are deposits of silver, manganese, zinc, antimony, borax, asphalt, coal, petroleum, and salt.

Transportation. Prior to the World War there were in European Turkey 1,046 miles of railway, and in Asiatic Turkey, 2,865. The Bagdad railway had been extended into Cilicia. The total railway mileage in 1916 There are about 30,000 miles of telegraph line. was 3,720.

Finance. The total revenue in 1918- 1919 was 33,965,698 Turkish pounds, and Turkey, it was provided that Turkish finances shall be controlled by a Finance the expenditure was 51,762,761 Turkish finances shall be controlled by a Finance pounds. By the Treaty of Peace with Turkey, it was provided that Turkish Commission composed of representatives The total debt of Turkey on Aug. 31, from Great Britain, France, and Italy. 1919, was 465,673,338 Turkish pounds. war Army. In August, 1914, the army consisted of 39 divisions, with a strength of about 150,000 men. During the war men had been recruited. The strength was approximately it was expanded to 70 divisions, and at the time of the armistice, nearly 2,700,000 during the 650,000. By the Treaty of Peace, Turkey lost possession of all her fortresses in Europe and Asia. The defenses of the Italy reserved the right to maintain naval, military, and air forces in the Straits. The armed forces were reduced ished, and Great Britain, France, and Straits. The armed forces were reduced Italy reserved the right to maintain naval, military, and air forces in the pulsory service was abolished. to a maximum of 50,000 men, and com- Navy. By the terms of the Treaty of Peace, the Turkish navy was abolished, except for certain vessels retained for police and fishery duties. There are few vessels of real value.

Religion and Education. -The established state religion is Mohammedan. The Sultan is the supreme head. The chief ecclesiastical official is the Sheikhul-Islam. His duties are judicial and legal, rather than spiritual. In Asiatic Turkey the Mohammedans form the for all children of both sexes. The state school is under the direct control of the Minister of Public Instruction. Schools great majority of the population. Elementary education is nominally compulsory school is under the direct control of the Minister of Public Instruction. Schools of various kinds in the empire number about 40,000 and contain about 1,500,000 pupils. There are training schools for a large number of foreign schools conteachers, but the general level of efficiency in the schools is low. There are can missionaries. The University of ducted by French, English, and Ameri- There are a number of state schools, in- Constantinople was reorganized in 1918. cluding the Imperial Art School and a theological seminary.

Government.-Turkey, prior to the World War, was nominally a constitutional monarchy, but in reality was an absolute monarchy. The formal constitution was adopted in 1876, which provided for a Parliament and other fea- Under Abdul-Hamid II., however, this tures of constitutional government. 1908, the prevailing discontent, especially constitution became a dead letter. In in the army, compelled the Sultan to 1908, the prevailing discontent, especially in the army, compelled the Sultan to TURKEY tion of a new Parliament and a constitutional government was restored on July 23, 1908. Following the armistice in 1918, Turkey was practically under control of the Allied Powers, especially Great Britain, although the Sultan had nominal rule.

History. The earliest notice of the Turks, or Turcomans, in history is about the year 800, when, issuing from various parts of Turkestan, they obtained possession of a part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. They afterward extended their conquests over the adjacent parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe, occupying Syria, Egypt, and eventually the territory that remained to the Greek empire. In 1453 Constantinople was taken by by Mohammed II., and became the capital of the empire. pire. The Morea and the islands were afterward overrun, with parts of Hungary, the Crimea, and the shores of the Black Sea. They next took the whole of the country now forming Turkey in Asia, the Hezja in Egypt, and the regencies of Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers. From the accession of Mohammed IV. in 1648, the Turkish empire began rapidly to decline, the vice and profligacy of the harem and seraglio being reflected in every branch of the state. The shelter given to Charles XII. of Sweden, in 1711, led to the first war with Russia, which must have ended in the ruin of that empire but for the cupidity of the grand-vizier, who accepted a bribe to allow Peter the Great and his army to escape.

From that time till 1774 the war with Russia was frequently renewed, and, by the peace of the latter year, a large extent of territory and the Black Sea were ceded by the Porte to Russia. In the campaign of 1787 the Turks were still more unfortunate, and, though in 1789, under Selim III., III., they retook Belgrade, they were elsewhere defeated. In 1807 the Emperor Alexander declared war against the Porte, and in the campaign advanced his frontier to the Pruth by the conquest of Bessarabia; the next severe loss the Turks sustained was from the revolt of the Greeks and the subsequent independence of their country. In 1854 war was once more declared against Turkey by Russia, when England, France, and Sardinia joined the Porte to enable the Sultan to resist the threatened invasion of his dominions; the burning of the Turkish fleet off Sinope, pe, the campaign on the Danube, the battles of Alma, Inkerman, Balaklava, and the bombardment and capture of Sebastopol, were some of the results of the two years' war with Russia; Turkey, for the first time in nearly a cen- TURKEY tury, sheathing the sword without the loss of a foot of territory. Subsequently, Turkey engaged in a war with the Montenegrins, who sought to cast off her yoke; and, later, was concerned in suppressing revolutionary tendencies in the Danubian principalities. In 1875, an insurrection broke out in Herzegovina, and in October, Turkey declared her partial insolvency.

In February, 1876, the six great European Powers proposed a scheme of reform which was largely accepted by the Sultan. On May 30 Sultan Abdul- Aziz was deposed. His nephew, Murad V., succeeded him, but was also deposed and followed, Aug. 31, by his brother, Abdul-Hamid II. On Jan. 18, 1877, the Grand Council of Turkey refused all interference by the European Powers and Russia declared war on April 21. Turkey was badly beaten and an armistice was signed in February, 1878. The terms of the treaty of peace at San Stephano (March 3) were subsequently modified at the Congress of Berlin. On April 19, 1897, Turkey was forced by Greece to declare war. The war was short and ended in Turkey's favor on June 3, Greece agreeing to pay a war indemnity of $2,000,000.

In 1898 Crete was taken in charge by the Great Powers and the island was handed over for government to Greece.

In the first decade of the 20th century, Turkey seemed on the point of collapse. There were revolts in Arabia and conditions of anarchy prevailed in Albania and Macedonia. In the latter country conditions led to foreign intervention, and the Sultan, much against his will, acceded to new reform schemes, which, however, were never carried out.

In the meantime, the public debt was increasing and the railways, mines, and banks were falling into the hands of the foreign capitalists. Just as Turkey appeared on the point of collapse, a movement for the rejuvenation of the country was started by a body called the Young Turks, who for many years had been working to bring about reform measures.

On July 23, 1908, the central body, called the Committee of Union and Progress, headed by Enver Pasha, proclaimed the restoration of the constitution of 1876.

An attack on Constantinople was threatened and the Sultan, greatly terrified, issued a decree restoring parliamentary government. Taking advantage of these disturbances, Austria, in October, 1908, annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina and at the same time Ferdinand of Bulgaria proclaimed the independence of that country. try . The new Turkish Government was obliged to agree. Albania became TURKEY pose Abdul-Hamid and placed him prac- pressed. Parliament now voted to de- which, however, was promptly supwere serious disturbances in Arabia and Macedonia. A counter-revolution started which, however, pressed. Parliament now voted to depose Abdul-Hamid and placed him pracwas promptly suptically in captivity near Saloniki. His brother, Mohammed V., was made Sultan in his place. Measures were now Greeks, and Serbians in Macedonia the Turkish empire. The Bulgarians, Greeks, and Serbians in Macedonia bitterly resented this, and Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia began to draw more closely together with the object of protecting their nationals in Macedonia.

În 1911 Italy seized Tripoli and Cyrenaica. war between Turkey and Italy. Peace This was foll was not concluded until 1912, when followed by a Italy gained a large territory, including Tripoli and Cyrenaica. During the summer of 1912, the Balkan states formed the Balkan League, which resulted in the Balkan War.

See possessions in Europe, except Constanstruggle was the loss of all Turkish possessions in Europe, except Constan- German influence had become strong jacent territory.

German influence had become strong in Turkey during these events. The Turkish army was armed and drilled by Germans, and the German Government secured the greater share of new concessions, including the Bagdad railroad. Germany's sympathy was shown toward Turkey during the Balkan War. when Turkey chose to side with Germany and Austria against the Allied Powers in the World War.

The Turkish Government, indeed, in the first days of the war, declared its neutrality, but mobilization of her military forces at once began. The commander-in-chief of the Turkish armies was Enver Pasha, who had been edu- mander-in-chief of the Turkish armies tary forces at once began. The comcated in Germany and whose ideals were those of his German associates. The had brought about the reorganization of the Turkish army on a modern basis.

On the declaration of war between Germany and Russia, Turkey at once closed the Dardanelles and the Bosporus to all shipping, planting mines at the entrances.

This effectively bottled up the Russian fleets in the Black Sea. war against Russia, On Nov. 17, On Oct. 30, 1914, Russia declared war against Turkey, and the Sultan at once declared France and England.

Great Britain formally tectorate over Egypt.

Great Britain formally declared a proypt. The Sultan enthe Gallipoli peninsula under cover of the TURKEY against the Allies, but this met with The first military operations of imempire. on Jan. 30, 1915. on portance took place in the Caucasus where a Turkish army advanced into Persia. This force was defeated by Russians The first military operations of imwere other Russian successes in Persia and in the Caucasus. The main operations, however, were carried on in Transcaucasia, where, There beaten by Russian forces, and for some months Turkey was unable to carry on further operations in this field. The a great Turkish army was decisively campaign was, however, conducted for Dec. 26, 1914, in January, 1916. This was frustrated by prompt British resistance which the purpose of capturing the Suez Canal, campaign was, however, conducted for further operations in this field. The drove back the Turkish forces, leaving the British in possession of the canal.

Other operations early in the war occurred in the Persian Gulf. The British the Turks evacuated on their approach.

Here the British prepared a base camp for an attack upon Bagdad, about 300 disembarked a force near Basra, which Here the British prepared a base camp The British attacked this point and finally succeeded in defeating the Turkish army, which surrendered. The British the Turkish army had been mobilized. then intrenched themselves, having cut off Turkey from any advance on India. which Turkey was engaged during the first period of the war was the effort to force a passage of the Dardanelles.

The most spectacular operations in Great preparations having been made, on the part of the French and British probable that Turkey had concentrated half a million men on the peninsula. the main attack upon the Gallipoli forts The British, after a severe bombardment was begun on Feb. 19, 1915. It is of the forts, landed marines, but these Turks and were compelled to re-embark.

These attacks continued for months following, but with little success. were attacked by superior forces of Allies, during the progress of the bom- Turks and were compelled to re-embark. tleships. paring an expeditionary for which was later transferred to the island of Lemnos, which had been occu- In the meantime the Allies were prethe first of these forces disembarked on the Gallipoli peninsula under cover of the force in Egypt pied by the Allies. On April 23, 1915, guns of the warships. The Turkish pied by the Allies. On April 23, 1915, troops, who were under the command the first of these forces disembarked on parti 1 TURKEY ing the hillsides, drove the Turks back and succeeded in obtaining a foothold.

For the months following, almost continuous fighting went on, through which the Turks lost considerable ground. In the beginning of September, however, they began vigorous counter-attacks and succeeded in driving back the Allied troops at a high cost in killed and wounded. The attempt to capture the peninsula persisted and would probably have succeeded, but for serious blunders in the operation. In the autumn of 1916 it became obvious that the expedition was a failure, and the British troops were withdrawn in December. This concluded the most disastrous series of military operations carried on by the Allies during the first period of the war.

In the meantime, the campaign in Mesopotamia was well under way. On June 3, 1916, the British captured Amara, 75 miles above Kurna. Kut-el-Amara, a strongly fortified post, still remained in the hands of the Turks. A four days' battle, which ended on Sept. 29, was ended by the defeat of the Turkish armies and the capture of Kut-el-Amara.

The British, under General Townsend, now engaged upon a campaign for the capture of Bagdad. The advance began in the early days of October, and was strongly opposed. The Turks retired until they reached the vicinity near Ctesiphon, where they were strongly intrenched. After a severe struggle, the Turks were obliged to fall back. They received re-enforcements, however, and repelled the British forces. Further re-enforcements having been received, they were able to continue to force back the British troops until they finally reached Kut-el-Amara, with a loss of fully one-third of the strength with which they had started. Here the British were able to intrench themselves and hold back the Turkish army. They were, however, cut off from communication with the outside world. Attempts were made to send relief, and British forces defeated the Turkish army near Kutel-Amara, on Jan. 6, 1916. The conditions of the country, however, made it impossible for the troops to advance farther. They were subject to various attacks by the Turks and finally the British commander decided to move up the left bank of the Tigris and attack the Turkish position from the rear. The movement failed, and the British were obliged to withdraw. Attempts were made to relieve Kut during the next months. On April 8 a sharp battle was fought at Sanna-i-yat. Here the British were unable to advance. By this time the besieged army at Kut-el-Amara had TURKEY reached the point where food had become scarce, and physical endurance was well nigh exhausted. On April 28, 1916, the British garrison surrendered to the Turks, thus ending the siege which lasted 143 days.

The surrender caused a deep sensation throughout all the countries at war, and the British Government determined to make a further and more extensive attempt to capture Bagdad. A large army was gathered under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Maud.

On Feb. 26, 1917, Kut-el-Amara was captured after a stubborn resistance.

The British continued steadily on up the Tigris river, although the Turks resisted with the utmost firmness. March 11, 1917, Bagdad surrendered.

Large quantities of stores and war materials fell into the hands of the British. On Campaigns continued in the Caucasus during the progress of the Mesopotamian operations. Turkey raised a large army for the purpose of seizing Kars and Tiflis and controlling the great Caspian oil fields. This army numbered about 140,000 men and was opposed by a Russian army of about 110,000. Operations began on Nov. 20, 1914, and were carried on with varying success during the following months. The Turks were decisively defeated in the second week of January, 1915, and the Turkish offensive in the Caucasus was effectively checked for the time being. Attempts by the Russians to carry on operations farther south were defeated by strong Turkish forces. The Russian armies were re-enforced, however, and checked further advances on the part of the Turks. Hostilities continued in Persia and the Caucasus during the first months of 1915. On May 23 the Russians occupied the city of Van and other places. By the autumn of this year, Russia was able to devote more strength to the Caucasus front and under the direction of Grand Duke Nicholas, a campaign was begun for the capture of Erzerum. The city was taken in the second week of February, 1916. The Russian advance continued toward Trebizond, the Turkish base of supplies on the Black Sea. On April 18 the city was captured. The larger part of Turkish Armenia was now in Russian hands. The Russians continued minor operations, but in the spring of 1917 disturbances in Russia, following the revolution, prevented active military operations.

Following the capture of Bagdad, the British forces proceeded with the conquest of Syria and Palestine. Prior to the beginning of this campaign, it was finally announced that the country would TURKEY TURKEY be turned over to the Jews for their Conference by a delegation, but this re re-establishment as a political entity. ceived small consideration. On July 11 , This resulted in the working for the re-establishment as a political entity. working for the the court martial sentenced many for- Allied cause among the Jews of all the mer prominent Turkish officials, includ- ing Enver Pasha, Talaat Bey, and of all the mer prominent Turkish officials, includ- Allied and neutral countries. Operations Djemel Pasha, to death. All three escountries. Operations ing Enver Pasha, Talaat Bey, and began on Oct. 27 with bombardment of Gaza by English and French warships. This was followed by land attacks by British cavalry and foot soldiers. The Turks were driven back with great loss, and the city of Gaza was taken on Nov. 7. On Nov. 16 Jaffa was captured without opposition. without opposition .

The British, in the face of heavy resistance, continued toward Jerusalem and in the early part of December, succeeded in isolating that city, which surrendered on Dec. 11. After the occupation of Jerusalem, the British continued their operations in the surrounding country.

They finally succeeded in clearing it of Turkish forces.

The Arabs in the Hedjaz, that part of Arabia adjoining the Red Sea, had in the meantime arisen against Turkish rule. In July uly, 1917, the insurgents defeated the Turkish troops at Maan and occupied that town and Akaba, the latter town being at the head of the Red Sea, on a gulf bearing the same name.

During September, the Arabian forces, operating under the King of the Hedjaz, carried on a series of important operations against the Turks and Arabians. King Hussein had been officially recognized by the Allied Governments and Hedjaz was declared an independent kingdom.

On Oct. 12, 1918, the Turkish Government opened negotiation for a separate peace with the Allies, and on Oct. 30, an armistice was arranged between the Turkish and the Allied Governments, and the war ceased in the Turkish empire. In accordance with the terms of the armistice, British troops were allowed to land on the peninsula of Gallipoli, and on Nov. 13, 1918, Allied warships passed through the Dardanelles and landed troops in Constantinople. During the progress of the war, the people in Armenia had suffered from repeated massacres, and the devastation in this country was alleviated as far as possible by relief expeditions sent out by the United States and other countries. On March 7, 1920, Mohammed VI. established a distinctly pro-Ally government, with David Pasha as David Pasha Grand Vizier. On April 13, Kemal Bey, one of the former pro- German commanders, was publicly hanged in Stamboul for complicity in the Armenian massacres. as Turkey was represented at the Peace Djemel Pasha, to death. All three escaped. Talaat Bey, however, was assassinated in Berlin, on March 15, 1921 .

These three men were practically in control of Turkey during the war. The treaty with Turkey was handed to the Turkish delegates in Paris, on May 11, 1920. Its provisions included mandates over Syria and Mesopotamia, while Palestine was to be a Jewish state under British protection. Thrace was awarded to Greece. In reply, Turkey refused to cede Smyrna or parts of Thrace, parts rts of Thrace, and they were at once occupied by Greek forces. The socalled Turkish Nationalists, directly after the terms of the treaty had been published, established a separate government in Anatolia, headed by Mustapha Kemal and declared that the terms of the treaty would be resisted to the utmost. A Greek army was dispatched against the Nationalists and hostilities were carried on throughout 1920, with no decisive results on either side. The Turks also carried on operations in Syria. The Turkish government did not sign the Treaty of Peace until March 1921, when, following a conference in London between representatives of the Allied countries and the Turkish Government and Turkish Nationalists, an agreement was finally arrived at. By the terms of this, Smyrna was returned to Turkey, and an agreement was made whereby a commission would be appointed to determine on ethnological, on ethnological , military, and commercial lines to whom Thrace rightly belongs. Turkish sovereignty over Constantinople was confirmed. Mohammed V. died on July 3, 1918, and was succeeded by Mohammed VI. The following is a list of the Sultans of Turkey (House of Othman) of Othman):

Othman, or Osman I.

Amurath IV., "The Intrepid" 1299 1326 Ibrahim .....1623 Orchan Amurath I. 1360 Mohammed IV....1649 Bajazet I., "The Thunderbolt,".. 1389 1402 Solyman I..

Achmet II...

Mohammed I.....1413 Achmet III. 1640 Solyman III. 1687 1691 Mustapha II. 1695 1703 Mahmoud I. 1730 Osman III 1754 Mustapha III. .1757 1451 Abdul-Hamid. 1774 Selim III. 1788 .1512 Mustapha IV.. 1807 Mahmoud II. 1808 Abdul-Medjid Abdul-Aziz .1839 .1861 Murad V..

Amurath II.1421 Mohammed II. (Conqueror of Constantinople) Bajazet II.1481 Selim I....

Solyman II., "The Magnificent,".. 1520 Selim II.

Amurath III. 1566 Achmet I.

Mustapha I.1617 Mohammed III... 1595 Osman II..

Mohammed V....1909 Mohammed VI...1918 Abdul-Hamid II..1876 TURKEY