Ur of the Chaldees
the birthplace of Abraham, anciently described as being situated on the shores of the Persian Gulf. The deposits of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers have since then removed the ruins inland, so that they lie in what are now the desert regions of southern Mesopotamia. In 1923, extensive excavations were instituted on the site by archaeologists of the British Museum and the University of Pennsylvania.
V VILNA. The local diet elected January 8, 1922 (See VILNA, p. 47) voted in February for union with Poland. The latter country hesitated to annex it, owing to the unsettled quarrel with Lithuania, but a resolution of incorporation was finally passed March 24th, and the district became a part of Poland, April 18, 1922. The Council of Ambassadors, March, 1923, officially awarded Vilna to Poland.
W WHEAT RUST, a parasitic growth which forms on wheat leaves and affects the quantity and the quality of the product. There are twelve known varieties of the rust, affecting the several varieties of wheat in different ways or degrees, certain varieties of wheat being comparatively immune to certain strains of rust. Efforts made to develop a wheat stock with immunity or high resistance to all the rusts have so far proved to be unsuccessful, but a more recent plan, worked out by Dr. E. B.
Mains of Purdue, is based on the fact that in any given section of the country only three or four rust strains are ordinarily present. With this observed fact to build upon, it now seems assured that for each wheat-growing section a hybrid wheat may be developed possessing immunity to the rusts of that section.
WIRED WIRELESS, a system in which line wires are utilized to guide electromagnetic waves. The possibilities of such a system were first proposed in 1897 by Major-General George O. Squier, and experiments were made in the following years both over telegraph lines and submarine cables. Recently the system has found widespread application in long-distance telephony and telegraphy, where the service is superimposed on the wires without interfering with their ordinary uses, and in radio broadcasting of musical and other programs from central stations to private houses, where the ordinary electric light lines are used.
A receiving outfit is installed in the house to be connected with an electric light socket.
WOMEN'S WAGE LAW DECISION. (See UNITED STATES, 1922-23.) tracted from the suprarenal glands of sheep, had been used for many years by physicians as a stimulant. In 1923 it ABYSSINIA. A formal application for admission to the League of Nations was forwarded by the Government of Abyssinia to the Assembly meeting at Geneva, and a mission, headed by Dajaz- Abyssinia to the Assembly meeting at Geneva, and a mission, headed by Dajazmack Mado and accompanied by M. de Bellefonds, legal adviser to the Government, left Addis Abeba on August 13 for Geneva to support the petition. Admission to the League was postponed, however, by that body, on the ground of the prevalence of slavery in Abyssinia.
The Regent of Abyssinia, Ras Tafari, stated that his Government was taking vigorous steps to suppress the trade and slave-running, but encountered serious difficulty in No Man's Land on the Anglo-Abyssinian border, owing to the connivance of British and French subjects actively engaged in the traffic. As the result of negotiations with the jects actively engaged in the traffic. Abyssinian Government, the Anglo- As the result of negotiations with the American Oil Company was reported as having obtained exclusive oil rights for fifty years in the northern half of the Province of Harrar.
ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. Possififty years in the northern half of the Province of Harrar. acters received new support in 1923 from the work of Professor Paul Kammerer of the University of Vienna, who demonstrated his findings before the Cambridge University Society of Natural History, in May, 1923. His chief experiments were made on five salamanders with black and yellow spots. When these were taken from their natural habitat to a yellow soil, they gradually lost their black color and their offspring were all in May, 1923. His chief experiments were made on five salamanders with black and yellow spots. When these were taken from their natural habitat ceeded in growing eyes on a sightless newt which requires no eyes because it lives in greenish water depths. It is claimed by some scientists that these results are not instances of true inheritance, but are more or less influences of nutritive or chemical substances on the germ cells. Many eminent British scienclaimed by some scientists that these rements are important. ADAMS, ALVA BLANCHARD (1875-), lawyer of Pueblo, Colo., appointed United States Senator in March, 1923, to fill out the term of Samuel D.
Nicholson. Mr. Adams is a Democrat politics. He graduated at Yale in from Columbia Law School ADRENALIN, the active principle exwas injected directly into the heart and was found to contract the blood vessels, increase the blood pressure and stimu- late the heart. It is found effective in sheep, had been used for many years by physicians as a stimulant. In 1923 it cases of violent shock, where life is ap- AERONAUTICS. Great progress was late the heart. It is found effective in made in all phases of aviation during 1923. In the United States, while there with success to start the life processes was a general high state of efficiency maintained, indicated by the fact that born dead or too weak to live. wn during AERONAUTICS. Great progress was was a general high state of efficiency made in all phases of aviation during sible forty-two were held by the United 1923. In the United States, while there maintained, indicated by the fact that decline in the air power of the country. thirty-three world records out of a pos- States Army and Navy flyers during the mercial aviation. This has retarded the year, there was, on the whole, a steady development of this important field of This was due chiefly to a lack of Federal law regulating and stimulating comaviation. The aircraft production industry has suffered in that it has been wholly dependent on government orders.
A huge new American airship of the Zeppelin type (ZR-1), the "Shenandoah," was successfully tested and flown during the year. Aviation in the United States fleet found new and important work. The air squadrons of the scouting fleet flew was successfully tested and flown resources during the year and performed the year. Aviation in the United States fleet found new and important work. The air squadrons of the scouting fleet flew to Panama and returned on their own resources during the year and performed 15,000 miles of scouting operations. A proposal to send an Arctic expedition by air to the North Pole attracted great at- tention. It was planned that the "Shenanproposal to send an Arctic expedition by craft. Preparations were well under air to the North Pole attracted great attention. It was planned that the "Shenandoah" should be the principal feature of the expedition, accompanied by other air- craft. Preparations were well under the expedition, accompanied by other airway when it was announced by President for a time deferred until Congress should indicate its approval. The North Ameri- Coolidge that the expedition would be more than twenty-four hours and exfor a time deferred until Congress should indicate its approval. The North American continent, from New York to San Airplanes and balloons carried on success- ful warfare against the gypsy moth and periments made by the United States Air Mail Service indicated that mail could be delivered in less than thirty were also used in locating forest fires hours from coast to coast after posting.
Airplanes and balloons carried on successful warfare against boll-weevil during the year. Aircraft AFGHANISTAN and in pursuing criminals. An airplane without a pilot was made to rise, fly and land by wireless electrical control a mile distant. It was found possible to refuel a flying airplane continuously for a period of 37 hours. The "ZR-1" or "Shenandoah," completed during the year, has a length of 680 feet and a diameter of 79 feet. It is equipped with six 200-300 horsepower Packard engines and has a maximum speed of 75 miles an hour. The great airship made several successful test flights and endured a terrific gale which blew her from her moorings gs and inflicted considerable damage. The chief air tragedy of the year was the fate of the French dirigible "Dixmude," which, after accomplishing a new endurance and distance record, was destroyed by lightning in a hurricane in the latter part of December. The "Dixmude" traveled 4,500 miles in an uninterrupted flight of 118 hours, 41 minutes. The building of air fleets for war purposes was carried on on a large scale in France and other European countries. France had completed approximately 2,000 aircraft of various kinds at the end of the year, far surpassing the air resources of any other country. Experiments were carried on in glider and light motor planes during the year. The maximum speed record of 266.59 miles per hour was attained by Lieutenant A. J. Williams, U. S. Navy, November 4, 1923. A duration test of 37 hours 15 minutes was won by Lieutenants Lowell H. Smith and J. P. Richter, on August 27-28, 1923. The altitude test at the end of the year was held by Sadi-Leconte, a French aviator, who reached a distance of 35,239 feet. The twelfth international Gordon-Bennett balloon race started from Brussels, Belgium, September 23, 1923, during a wind and thunder storm. Several of the balloons were struck by lightning and wrecked by gales and the crews killed.
A Belgian balloon which landed in Sweden, won the race.
AFGHANISTAN. In accordance with the obligations assumed by the British Government, under the treaty of 1921 with Afghanistan, to assist in the economic rehabilitation of that country, an Anglo-Afghan trade convention was signed on June 7, formally granting Indian customs and transportation advantages for the importation into Afghanistan of factory machinery and other supplies.
A mission representing the "Young Bokhara" party arrived in Afghanistan early in June with the design of enlisting sympathy and national support for AGRICULTURAL RELIEF its plan of a Turkestan National Republic. Nothing definite resulted, though a considerable section of public opinion was sympathetic.
Some friction developed in December between the British Indian and Afghan Governments, as a result of the murders of Englishmen and Englishwomen by bandits, who sought refuge within Afghan territory. Strong representations were made by the British that the culprits should be hunted out and punished. Pending the negotiations, a shipment of arms from France to Afghanistan was held up at Bombay.
The Afghan Government sent troops in pursuit of the marauders, and some of them were captured and punished, thus ending the incident.
AGRICULTURAL RELIEF. The economic condition of agriculture occupied a large share of public attention during 1923. The inability of farmers to market their products at a profitable rate and the corresponding increase in prices which they were obliged to pay for necessary commodities, resulted in financial stringency, especially in those portions of the country devoted chiefly to the production of wheat, that is, the Northwest. Both President Harding and President Coolidge were alive to these conditions and did their utmost to remedy them. Early in October a delegation of farmers and bankers from the States chiefly affected-Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota-visited President Coolidge and presented a plan for alleviating the conditions. This plan. called for a revival of the United States Grain Corporation to undertake the orderly marketing and production of grain. A lower railroad freight rate on grain and flour was also demanded and a plea was made for an extra session of Congress to pass appropriate legislation.
The President listened to their suggestions but made no comment upon them.. The Secretary of Agriculture evolved a plan which was afterward placed in the form of a measure and submitted to Congress. This called for the creation of a large grain export corporation by the government to purchase grain with government money, and sell it abroad by cutting prices and taking the necessary losses. In the following year the deficit. thus made would be made up by an excise tax on grain at the elevators. The President in his annual message to Congress emphasized as one of the press-- ing needs remedial legislation to bring about a better condition in agriculture.
Two important measures were before:
Congress at the beginning of 1924.
ALASKA was the practical completion of the in the history of Alaska during the year which provided for an appropriation of $25,000,000 from the government in order to enable farmers to purchase live stock and take other steps to diversify the crops in the regions devoted almost entirely to the growth of wheat. The other measure was called the McNary Bill and followed in essential details the plan suggested by Secretary Wallace as outlined above. completion of the ALASKA. The most important event in the history of Alaska during the year was the practical completi government railroad in May. This railroad, which was authorized by Congress in 1914, is now in operation from Seward to Fairbanks, a distance of 467 miles. In addition there are spurs to coal mines which bring the total up to 541 miles.
The total cost exceeds $52,000,000. President Harding, in the journey which ended in his death, visited Alaska in August and drove the last spike in the completed railroad. He was everywhere received with great enthusiasm as this trip was the first made by a President of the United States to the Territory.
The total exports from Alaska to the United States in 1922-23 amounted to in the same $52,984,275, and the imports to $29,981, 604.
Shipments of gold in year amounted to $7,496,319. Alaska has produced more than $320,000,000 worth of gold since the first discovery of that metal in 1880. Although agriculture is on the increase, the economic possibilities of Alaska have not yet been developed in accordance with their capacity. The new railroad, which extends from Seward at Resurrection Bay to Fairbanks, on the Tanana River, taps valuable coal and mineral resources which now become available. Oil of a high grade has been found in the Katalla field.
Finland, an expert appointed by the ALBANIA. Mr. I. J. Sederholm of nomic situation in the new State. Her litical, religious, educational and eco- League an exhaustive report on the po- ditions in Albania, submitted to the three powers which at various times had litical, religious, educational and economic situation in the new State. Her boundaries had been defined, and the three powers which at various times had threatened her independence-Greece, Italy and Jugoslavia-had made no hostile move since Albania had been admitted to membership in the League in 1921. The country was insufficiently provided with good roads and schools.
Differences of religion constituted an obstacle to progress. The soil was inadequately cultivated. Albanian congregations of the Greek Orthodox Church brought about an offi- Albanian congregations of the Greek which provided for an appropriation of tional Albanian Church. This entailed cial proclamation of an independent naplan suggested by Secretary Wallace as ALASKA. The most important event Bill and followed in essential details the other measure was called the McNary entirely to the growth of wheat. The tional Albanian Church. This entailed adjustments with the Ecumenical Patriarch at Athens, which led to discord and complications. The Albanian Government asked for the establishment of diplomatic relations with the Vatican. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION y. On the major December, met on Jan. 21, 1924. The nitely, but in each party the predominant tendency was republican.
The Constituent Assembly elected in three main parties-Democrats, Independents and Populars-held 35, 26 and 18 seats respectively. question of republicanism versus monarchy, no party committed itself defi- AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
The seventy-eighth annual me American Association for the Advancement of Science was held in Cincinnati, Ohio, during the week beginning Dec. annual meeting of the
923. This association with a mem- 27, 1923. bership of over 11,000 is the representa- 27, 1923. This association with a mem- Ohio, during the week beginning Dec. ment of Science was held in Cincinnati, American Association for the Advance- The seventy-eighth annual meeting of the THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. Christmas holidays, in order to enable and holds its annual meetings during the organization of American scientists, association. From twelve hundred he seventy-fifth anniversary of the associa- This year's meetings celebrated the attend these meetings in large numbers. the majority of the membership, to men of the academic world, who make up the program, and any of these was to be eligible for a prize of $1,000, offered This year's meetings celebrated the tion's foundation. The association conmen of the academic w the majority of the membership, to attend these meetings in large numbers . seventy-fifth anniversary of the associaworld, who make up sists of sixteen sections and twenty-seven affiliated societies which meet with the by an anonymous lay member to that scientist who presented the most notable contribution to the advancement of science. Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Dean of Toronto, the 1921 president, delivered affiliated societies which meet with the the presidential address. The sections of the American Association for the advancement of science are devoted to the following branches: mathematics, physics, of Toronto, the 1921 president, delivered J. Playfair McMurrich, of the University the Smithsonian Institution, presided. Dr. of American Geologists and Secretary of science. Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Dean contribution to the advancement of scientist who presented the most notable by an anonymous lay member to that be eligible for a prize of $1,000, offered the program, and any of these was to sists of sixteen sections and twenty-seven tion's foundation. The association conzoology, botany, anthropology, psycholthe Smithsonian ogy, soc engineering, medicine, agriculture, and nian Institution, presided. Dr. cinnati meeting held their annual meetings as follows: statisticians, economists, sociologists, and political scientis ogy, social science, history and language, zoology, botany, anthropology, psycholengineering, medicine, agriculture, and other specialists of various kinds in held their annual meetings as follows: cinnati meeting other important groups education. Concurrent with the Cinvancement of science are devoted to the the American Association for the ad- the presidential address. The sections of pathologists, in St. Louis, Mo.; and scientists , in Washington, social science, history and language, ing other important groups AMERICAN LEGION more, Md., and Providence, R. I. Dr.
McMurrich's presidential address was devoted to a retrospective view of biological science, with particular emphasis on evolution and heredity. Dr. J. McKeen Cattell, the distinguished authority in experimental psychology and biology, editor of "Science," "Scientific Monthly," "School and Society," "American Naturalist" and "American Men of Science," was elected president for the coming year.
The prize for the year was awarded to Professor L. E. Dickson of the University of Chicago, for mathematical papers, one of them entitled "Algebras and their Arithmetics."
AMERICAN LEGION. The American Legion had its annual convention at San Francisco in October. The chief guest of honor was General Joseph Haller, commander of the Polish army.
Other speakers at the convention included Secretary of Labor Davis, Director Hines of the Veterans' Bureau, Samuel Gompers and Admiral R. E.
Coontz. The Legion voted in favor of the bonus, although this action was opposed by a small body. Another contest was over the Ku Klux Klan, which was finally condemned but not by name.
John R. Quinn of California, formerly Captain of the 348th Field Artillery, was elected president for 1924.
AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH AS- SOCIATION. The 52d annual meeting of the association was held at Boston in October, 1923. Each of the nine sections of the association had arranged for separate sessions for its specialists, resulting in intensive discussions of the following subjects: Public Health_Administration, Laboratory Activities, Food and Drugs, Vital Statistics, Sanitary Engineering, Industrial Hygiene, Child Hygiene, Health Education and Publicity, and Public Health Nursing. Sir Thomas Oliver, professor of practice of medicine in the college of medicine, Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, author of "Diseases of Occupation" and the world's most eminent authority on Industrial Hygiene, was the guest of honor and in a public address ascribed the leadership in industrial safety and sanitation to the United States. The committee on Municipal Health Department Practice presented a report on the proposed award for the "Best Health" city in the United States. The convention appointed Dr. Watson S. Rankin, State health officer of North Carolina, field director of the association for the purpose of visiting American cities in order to "score" them in connection with the ANTIMICROBUM contest and to advise with municipal health authorities on ways and means of improving community health conditions. Dr. William H. Park, Director of Laboratories, New York City Health Department, was elected president for 1923-1924.
AMERICAN REVOLUTION, DAUGHTERS OF THE. The annual congress of this society was held in Washington, in April, 1923. Many prominent persons were present and took part in the deliberations. These included Ambassador Jusserand, Sir Auckland Geddes, British Ambassador, and General Lord, director of the Budget.
Mrs. Anthony Wayne Cook was elected president in 1924.
AMHERST COLLEGE. As a result of the forced resignation of Professor Alexander Meiklejohn as president of the college, six members of the faculty_resigned in June, 1923. These were Reverend Albert Parker Fitch and Professors Gaus (Political Science), Agard (Greek), Stewart (Economics), Hinners (Music) and Hamilton (Economics). The difficulties concerned freedom of discussion. ANÆSTHETICS, NEW. Two new anæsthetics which were developed during 1923 and after extensive tests, seem to have established their value, are gradually taking their place at the side of ether, chloroform and other anæsthetics of proved value. One, derived from ethylene gas, a coal gas ingredient, has been developed by Drs. Laukhardt and Carter of the physiology department of the university of Chicago. In purified state it is claimed not to affect heart action, and the administration of oxygen is said to result in the immediate reviving of patients treated with the new formula.
Professor Gauss of Freiburg, Germany, is the discoverer of the other. It is composed of 40 per cent purified acetylene and 60 per cent oxygen, with oil of pine as a deodorizing agent. Over 500 operations have been reported as having been performed without any harmful results.
ANDREWS, ROY CHAPMAN, (1884-), American scientist who in 1922 and 1923 conducted an American expedition to Mongolia to examine the fossil beds in that country. His discoveries were epoch making. (See FOSSIL DIS- COVERIES.) ANTHROPOLOGY. (See FOSSIL DIS- COVERIES.) ANTIMICROBUM. A new bactericide for the treatment of pneumonia was discovered by Dr. Leander Tomarkin, a ARABIA young Swiss physician of Russian origin, who in recent years has done important research work in Italian laboratories.
The new drug was named after its discoverer, "Antimicrobum Tomarkin." The drug is a synthetic compound in the form of gray powders, contained in gelatin capsules and soluble in water. It has been used experimentally in a large number of pneumonia cases in Italian hospitals and it is claimed to have reduced the mortality rate from 35 per cent to 2 per cent. An eminent Italian medical scientist, Professor Ettore Marchiafava, vouches for the new discovery. Its scientific approval, of course, will depend on extensive detailed scientific tests.
ARABIA. It was reported from Sabbia in the Yemen (Southwest Arabia) on March 31 that the death had occurred of Said Mohammed Idrisi, Emir of Asir, a picturesque figure who relied on a reputation for orthodoxy and miracle working to keep his lawless subjects in order. His son, Ali ben Mohammed Idrisi, was proclaimed as his successor. (See also HEDJAZ.) ARBITRATION. The Arbitration Treaty between Great Britain and the United States, originally concluded in 1908, was renewed for the third time for a five-year period. Secretary of State Charles E. Hughes was the signatory for the United States and Sir Auckland Geddes, British Ambassador at Washington, for Great Britain. Just as in the original treaty, it is provided in the agreement covering its renewal that all legal disputes not settled by diplomacy are to be submitted to the Hague Court of Arbitration, excepting only matters affecting "the vital interests, the independence or the honor of the two contracting States." Provision is also made, as part of the last renewal, for the possibility of the United States becoming a member of the World Court, in which case the two governments are to consider the submittal of disputes to the latter body in place of the Hague tribunal.
ARCHÆOLOGY. Many important archæological discoveries were made during 1923. While there was nothing approaching in spectacular interest the uncovering of the tomb of Tutankhamen, in the autumn of 1922, important results were obtained in many different fields. The Egyptian tomb was finally opened on February 18, 1923. The treasures found were bewildering in their diversity and richness. They included the throne of the king, caskets, and boxes ARCHEOLOGY elaborately carved in ivory, ebony and gold. The war chariots of the king were also found in the outer chamber, and two life-sized statues of the king made of wood and covered with pitch stood guard before the inner sanctuary. The wall between the antechamber and the inner chamber was broken down, revealing a huge sarcophagus in which the body of the king rested. Over the sarcophagus was an immense canopy. The treasures in the antechamber were removed to Cairo and will be exhibited in the museum there under the Egyptian department of antiquities. Work on the tomb was abandoned late in the spring and the tomb was sealed. It was opened again in November, and the work was begun in the inner chamber in removing the canopies and the shrines which covered the sarcophagus. In February, 1924, the lid of the sarcophagus was raised, revealing an immense mummy case embossed in gold with an effigy of the king. Difficulties between Howard Carter and the Egyptian Government resulted in the discontinuation of the work during a part of 1924. Another expedition carried on work in Ethiopia and the Upper Nile during 1923. Here were discovered the Temple of Ammon and the remains of Ethiopian rulers dating from 900-600 B. C. An expedition of the University of Pennsylvania carried on work at Memphis and also in Babylonia.
Wonderful discoveries were made at the site of the ancient city of Ur, by a joint expedition under the auspices of Oxford University and the University of Penn- Brick walls the temple of the moon god dating from 3000 в. c. were unearthed. The University of Pennsylvania conducted excavations at Beisan, Palestine, and unearthed Egyptian buildings and inscriptions of Seti I. and Rameses II. The latter inscription stated that great buildings have been constructed by the Semites in Egypt.
This is taken by scholars to refer to the Hebrews in Egypt and is believed to substantiate the Old Testament version of the story of the Hebrews in Egypt.
Among the most important discoveries of the year were those made in Yucatan, where the civilization of the Maya race, which covered at various times a large part of Yucatan, Guatemala, Salvador and Honduras, reached the highest level of culture of any of the ancient peoples in the New World. It is believed to have been begun about the first century before Christ and to have flourished to about 1400 A. D. Immense houses, temples and pyramids were uncovered. Among these people, who numbered several million, astronomy and mathematics were highly ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS developed. They had elaborate picture reading, much of which has been deciphered. Their calendar was exceedingly complex and exact. Instead of a century, it had a long period of 52 years and a year of eighteen months of twenty days each. (See also FOSSIL DISCOVERIES.) ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. Several expeditions for Arctic exploration were projected and carried out in 1923.
Captain Roald Amundsen, who was the first to reach the South Pole, planned an airplane flight over the North Pole from Alaska to Spitzbergen. Defects in the airplane and other reasons resulted in the postponement of this at tempt. Dr. Donald B. MacMillan, who was one of the Peary party which reached the North Pole, sailed on July 16, 923, for a two-year Arctic voyage.
He planned to coast along the Greenland shore to study terrestrial magnetism and winter at Cape Sabine. MacMillan's party was the first which was provided with a radio apparatus and messages from him were frequently received during the year. He erected a bronze tablet on the site of the old Greeley expedition camp where eighteen perished during the Greeley expedition to the North Pole. Captain Robert A. men Bartlett, who accompanied Peary almost to the Pole, planned a three-year three-year trip in the Arctic, for the purpose of measuring air currents, charting the bottom of the sea and gathering flora.
ARGENTINA. Despite some labor troubles the general economic condition of the country was good for the major part of the year. There was a remarkable development in the cotton growing districts in the northern territories.
President Alvear in a message to the Argentine Congress on June 17 asked authority to modernize the navy. It was announced on July 3 that an appropriation of 150,000,000 pesos would be asked for military armaments. The President asked for legislation to facilitate Argentina's return to the League of Nations and requested formal approval of the League covenant. The Argentine budget for 1923 was the largest in the history of the country. Progress was made in advanced labor legislation, and the eight-hour day was enforced on employers. On Jan. 2, 1924, aerial mail service was established between Buenos Aires and Montevideo, Uruguay, a distance of 120 miles. ARMS, TRAFFIC IN. An attempt was made during 1923 by the League of Nations to restrict by treaty the traffic in arms. A treaty, known as the St.
AUSTRALIA Germain Convention, was drawn up and submitted to the various powers for ratification. Secretary of State Hughes, on behalf of the United States, expressed sympathy with the movement, but declined to become a signatory of the treaty because: (1) it did not provide for a general restriction of armament, permitting the signatories to supply one another with arms; (2) it prohibited the sale of arms to countries not signatories, though such sales might at times be highly desirable; (3) it required special legislation by Congress which the Government was not prepared to undertake; (4) it was too closely tied up with the League of Nations. As a result of this refusal the League, through the Acting President of its Council, Hjalmar Branting, ex-Premier of Sweden, addressed the United States Government again and requested that the restrictions in the traffic of arms to which the United States was willing to subscribe be stated so that another convention could be drafted, which would be agreeable to the United States. It was pointed out at the same time that the refusal on the part of the United States to ratify the first convention had prevented other armstrading nations from ratifying and that any treaty to which the United States was not a party would experience the same fate.
ARTILLERY.
A new automatic rapid-firing cannon of 1.5 inch caliber, capable of firing 120 1.25 pound shells a minute, was perfected during 1923 by John M. Browning, inventor of the Browning machine gun. This cannon is intended for use on airplanes as well as on land and sea, and has a range of seven miles. It weighs 160 pounds and can be aimed accurately from any position.
AUSTRALIA. Great enthusiasm was manifested over the vast Murray River undertaking of the South Australian Government, whereby land was provided for more than 10,000 settlers, including 2,500 ex-soldiers. The area of 2,000,000 acres is estimated to be capable of yielding fruit valued at $500,000,000 yearly. The yield of Australian cane sugar for the year was estimated at 305,000 tons, which was 10 per cent in excess of home consumption.
The Queensland State elections, which took place on May 12, resulted in a victory for the Labor Government. This was the fourth time the Labor party had succeeded in an appeal to the people.
Its success is attributed to the fact that it is supported not only by the labor unions, but also by the farmers, who AUSTRIA have greatly benefited by the progressive legislation passed by the government.
During the early part of November, Melbourne, capital of the State of Victoria and temporary capital of the Australian Commonwealth, was in the throes of a police strike, which began on October 30, when the Police Commissioner refused to dismiss an officer accused of spying. Mobs took advantage of the situation to loot, and several deaths and many injuries resulted before the disorders could be quelled. AUSTRIA. The economic rehabilitation of Austria progressed rapidly throughout the year. At a meeting of the League Council in Paris, on February 1, Austria was authorized to borrow from international bankers about $17, 000,000 of the total of $126,000,000 which had been promised her as a loan, the rest to follow at intervals. The loan was guaranteed by Great Britain, France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Spain, Belgium and Switzerland, in fixed proportions, on the collateral of Austrian railroad and customs receipts. A policy of drastic economy was inaugurated.
Thousands of unnecessary em employees were dismissed from the government service. Improvement in conditions followed almost immediately. The cost of living decreased, the Austrian crown ad- BELGIUM vanced in value, and savings-bank deposits grew in three months from 11,000- 000,000 paper crowns to 86,000,000,000.
A British railway expert reported that Vienna was regaining her position as a commercial center for the Danube Basin and southern Europe, and was again establishing herself as an exchange center for the whole of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire, as well as for the Balkan States.
B BALDWIN, STANLEY (1867-), an English statesman. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1906 he entered Parliament, where his ability as a financier and student of economics gave him immediate prominence. He was appointed financial Secretary of the Treasury in 1917 and remained in this post until 1921. In the following year he became Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Bonar Law cabinet and was a member of the British Debt Commission which adjusted the war debt between the United States and Great Britain in that year. On the resignation of Bonar Law as Premier in May, 1923, Baldwin was chosen successor as leader of the Conservative party. He retained office until the early part of 1923, when the defeat of his party in Parliament brought the Labor party into power.
BAPTISTS.
On February 27, Austria was awarded 3,000,000 Swiss francs by a Rotterdam arbitration court as reparation for an attack by Hungarian peasants on the Austro-Hungarian border. The secret service, on November 9, discovered a Hitler 'Fascista plot to overthrow both Austria and Hungary. General Ludendorff was implicated, it was alleged, and the Austrian deputy Ulain was arrested.
Other disorders occurred sporadically, but were easily repressed by the authorities.
AZERBAIJAN. Economic conditions were bad and the process of economic rehabilitation exceedingly slow. An official announcement in August by the government of the Province revived the Turcoman language as compulsory in all local and State institutions under official control, but permitted the Armenian tongue in the autonomous Karabach district.
Temple, Boston, in July, 1923. 5,000 delegates from all parts of the United States and Canada were in attendance.
The keynote of the convention was "The Attractive Christ." The various addresses, discussions and resolutions put special emphasis on the following subjects: deeper interest in clean industry and politics, international youth alliance, missions, prohibition, church finances, World Court.
BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS (1868-) United States Senator from Del- He is the son of Thomas F. aware. On the The 32d annual convention of the Baptist Young People's Union of America was held in Tremont Bayard, the eminent statesman and diplomat, and was born at Wilmington, Delaware, June 4, 1868, graduated at Yale in 1890 and was admitted to the bar in 1893. He is a lawyer and has long been prominent in the politics of his State. In November, 1922, he was elected Senator.
BELGIUM. The foreign policy of Belgium during the year was largely in accord with that of France, with whom BETA CETI she jointly took part in the occupation of the Ruhr. What differences she has had with her powerful ally on that subject have been slight and easily adjusted.
Her geographical position on the German border and the damage caused by the German invasion impressed on her the need of security and reparations, and the preponderant opinion of her people has favored the French course. Like England however, she also needs trade, and is interested in the economic stability and peace of Europe. She has been consistently cautious and moderate, and has sought to find a common policy on which France and England might agree. She favored an invitation to the United States to participate in an investigation into German finances, without the extreme limitations placed on the proposed commission by Premier Poincaré. Early in September Belgium completed a satisfactory pact with Great Britain, concerning the boundaries of the disputed Ruanda-Urundji territory in former German East Africa. British concessions added 2,100 square miles to the Belgian mandate. The result strengthened the friendly relations between the two countries.
Economically the year was a prosperous one. There was practically no unemployment, factories were busy and agriculture revived enormously. The production production of wheat was 1,000,000 sacks more than in 1922. The stock stock of cattle was largely increased. During the year, 9,351 vessels entered the port of Antwerp, with a tonnage of 17,349,000, an increase over 1922 of 1,028 vessels and 2,229,000 tons, and over 1913 (the best pre-war year) of 2,294 vessels and 3,203,000 tons.
BETA CETI. A star, formerly classed as of the second magnitude, but now classed as of the first magnitude.
It was formerly on the outermost reaches of the stellar system in the Constellation of the Whale. The change is due to a sudden doubling of the star's brightness which though observed by astronomers only recently, actually occurred 80 years ago. The long delay is explained by the fact that this star is 80 light-years away.
Fixed stars not uncommonly increase in brightness in this manner. The cause of this is still a matter of conjecture, but is believed to be eruptions within the star.
Such variable stars, stars, however, gradually drop back again to their original brilliancy.
BIOGRAPHICAL CONTINUATIONS. (See also NECROLOGY.) CECIL, LORD ROBERT, peace advocate and member of the famous Cecil family BIOGRAPHICAL of England, made a tour of the United States in March and April, 1923, urging support for the League of Nations. Lord Robert Cecil was for a time secretary to his father, the Marquis of Salisbury.
He has also acted in many other official positions in English politics. He is a scholar, lawyer and author.
COOLIDGE, CALVIN. Following the death President Harding, on Aug. 2, 1923, Calvin Coolidge, vice president, succeeded at once to the presidency. He was at the time at the home of his father in Vermont. Here the oath of office was administered to him and Mr. Coolidge at once went to Washington where he assumed charge of the executive branch of the Government. After having declared that he would follow the policies of President Harding, he made no further statement of policy until Congress met in December, 1923. He then read his message, which contained many important recommendations for legislation. (See UNITED STATES, section CONGRESS.) President Coolidge won public confidence by his refusal to engage in political comments of controversies. In the difficulties arising over the oil scandals and attacks upon Attorney General Daugherty, he maintained the attitude that no action should be taken by him until final investigation had been made and the guilt or innocence of the accused had been established. President Coolidge retained the entire cabinet of President Harding.
CUMMINS, ALBERT BAIRD, United States Senator from Iowa, was defeated by a coalition of Progressives and Democrats in the Senate for the chairmanship of the Interstate Commerce Commission.
He retained, however, the office of president pro tempore in the Senate, which he had held for several years.
DAUGHERTY, HARRY MACAJAH, Attorney General of the United States, was under fire in Congress and elsewhere during the greater part part of 1923.
An attempt to impeach him for alleged mismanagement of his office was defeated in the House of Representatives, but in the latter part of the year a Senate Committee was appointed to investigate his administration. This was headed by Senator Wheeler of Montana and ses- President Coolidge refused to remove sions of the committee began in 1924. Daugherty until the final determination of the charges against him had been made. Following his refusal to furnish the committee began in 1924. certain data to the Senate Committee his resignation was asked for and received by President Coolidge on March 28, 1924.
BIOGRAPHICAL DAWES, CHARLES GATES, organized in 1923 a society called the Minute Men, for aggressive work in stimulating patriotism. General Dawes served as Chief of Transportation and Supplies in the World War, and in 1921 organized the first national budget and served as its first director. Following his resignation from that office, he became chairman of the Board of the Central Trust Company of Illinois. General Dawes, early in 1923, was made head of the commission appointed by the Reparations Commission to examine into the financial and economic condition of Germany.
DE PACHMANN, VLADIMIR, eminent pianist, visited the United States in 1923, after a long absence. He has been for years recognized as one of the world's greatest musicians, and at the age of seventy-five his talent still remains unimpaired.
DE VALERA, EAMON, leader of the Irish Republican party, modified his aggressive attitude in the latter part of 1923 and declared that armed rebellion be at an end. After a search which lasted for many months, De Valera was captured while delivering an address in August, 1923. He was the last of the prominent Irish Republican leaders to fall into the hands of the officials of the Irish Free State.
FALL, ALBERT BACON, resigned as Secretary of the Interior March 4, 1923, to resume the practice of law and his personal affairs. Oil leases made by him in his capacity as Secretary of the. Interior to Harry F. Sinclair and Edward F.
Doheny in 1921-1922, were the subject of investigation by a committee of the Senate in 1924. It was charged that Mr.
Fall had been influenced to grant these leases in Wyoming and California in return for money given by Doheny. He at first denied these charges but afterward, when his story was found to be false, refused further testimony. (See NAVAL OIL RESERVES.) FORD, HENRY, was much in the public eye during 1923. In the early half of the year he was repeatedly mentioned as a possible candidate for the presidency, and there was strong indication that he would have considerable support. In October, however, he announced that he was not a candidate and was heartily in favor of President Coolidge, with whom, he declared, the people were well satisfied. In Congress debate was carried on over Mr. Ford's offer to purchase the Government project at Muscle Shoals, Ala.
BIOGRAPHICAL GEORGE, DAVID LLOYD, former Prime Minister of England, visited the United States in 1923, making a lecture tour through the various cities. He declared that his errand was not political. His efforts were directed mainly to arousing interest in conditions in Europe. Eu Mr. Lloyd George was everywhere received with the greatest enthusiasm. He visited also several cities in Canada.
HARDING, WARREN GAMALIEL. President Harding died on Aug. 2, 1923, as a result of an illness following his journey through the western United States and Alaska. During the progress of this journey he made speeches in which he explained and defended the great policies of his administration.
During this journey President Harding became greatly fatigued and suffered ptomaine poisoning from food of which he had partaken. Upon arriving in San Francisco, he was taken ill and died from apoplexy, on Aug. 2, 1923. The mourning for President Harding was universal and sincere. It was evident that he stood high in the affection and admiration of the people. After a State funeral in Washington, he was buried at his former home in Marion, Ohio.
HARVEY, GEORGE BRINTON MCCLELLAN, resigned as Ambassador to Great Britain in October, 1923. He had performed the duties of this office with great ability and did much to cement friendly relations between the United States and England.
JOHNSON, HIRAM WARREN, United States Senator from California, visited Europe during the summer of 1923. He declared his candidacy for the presidential nomination on his return and carried on an aggressive campaign early in 1924 for delegates in the States which held primaries. He continued to be titular leader of the so-called Progressive Republicans.
KELLOGG, FRANK BILLINGS, former United States Senator from Minnesota; was appointed American Ambassador to Great Britain in 1923, following the resignation of George B. M. Harvey.
Senator Kellogg was defeated for reelection in 1922. LA FOLLETTE, ROBERT MARION, United States Senator from Wisconsin; was an aggressive leader of the Radical element in the Senate in the 67th and 68th Congresses, and also controlled largely the activities of the Radical members of the House. Senator La Follette during the year made a trip to Russia, studying the Government institutions of that BIOGRAPHICAL country. On his return he declared himself favorably impressed with the Soviet Government. Senator La Follette is largely responsible for the defeat of the regular Republicans in their attempt to elect a chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission in December, 1923. It was generally believed that he would head a third party for the presidential nomination in 1924.
LONGWORTH, NICHOLAS, became leader of the Republicans in the House of Representatives on the reorganization of Congress in December, 1923.
MCADOO, WILLIAM GIBBS, was a foremost candidate for the Democratic nomination for presidency during 1923. Investigations carried on by the committee examining into the oil scandals revealed the fact that Mr. McAdoo had been employed as attorney, under a large salary, by Edward F. Doheny, following the former's resignation as Secretary of the Treasury in 1921. These revelations probably have affected Mr. McAdoo's chances for the nomination, although no intimation of personal corruption was made.
MACDONALD, JAMES RAMSAY, leader of the British Labor Party, maintained leadership of the party during the year in Parliament following the election of 1922 which gave the Labor Party second place in point of members. The downfall of the Conservative Party through its failure to win support for its policies in Parliament placed the Labor Party in control early in 1924, and MacDonald became Prime Minister, succeeding Stanley Baldwin, Jan. 22, 1924.
MELLON, ANDREW WILLIAM, Secretary of the Treasury, formulated a plan for amending the tax laws whereby the taxes would be reduced nearly half a billion dollars. (See TAXATION.) He continued his opposition to the Soldiers' Bonus.
BIOGRAPHICAL elected by the National Assembly first president of the Turkish Republic.
NELSON, KNUTE, United States Senator from Minnesota, died in April, 1923. He was the oldest member of the Senate in point of service, having first been elected in 1895. Senator Nelson was a conservative in politics and was one of the most highly regarded members of the upper House. He fought in the Civil War as a private.
OBREGON, ALVARO, President of Mexico, was in the latter part of the year obliged to face a rebellion headed by Adolfo de la Huerta and others who were opposed to his selection of a successor to the presidency. President Obregon vigorously attacked the revolutionists and defeated them in 1923 and early in 1924, practically suppressing the rebellion. He carried on, during the year, negotiations with the United States which resulted in an agreement on all points at issue. (See MEXICO.) PEPPER, GEORGE WHARTON, United States Senator from Pennsylvania, was made a member of the Foreign Relations Committee in the Senate. Senator Pepper was elected in 1922 and from his entrance into the Senate has taken a leading part in its councils.
RALSTON, SAMUEL MOFFETT, United States Senator from Indiana, elected in 1922, was frequently mentioned during the year as a possible candidate for the presidency. He was Governor of Indiana from 1913 to 1917, and is one of the most prominent Democratic political leaders in the country.
ROBINSON, JOSEPH T., United States Senator from Arkansas, became Democratic leader of the Senate following the resignation of Senator Underwood. Senator Robinson was permanent chairman of the San Francisco Convention which nominated James M. Cox in 1920. He MUSSOLINI, BENITO, remained during is an aggressive leader and a man of 1923 the practical dictator of Italy as head of the Fascisti and acting prime minister. He devised a system of elections during the year which greatly modified the existing eystem. Signor Mussolini took a strong stand for aggressive action against Greece following the murder of Italian officials in Albania. (See ITALY, LEAGUE OF NATIONS, GREECE.) MUSTAPHA, KEMAL PASHA, remained during 1923 at the head of Turkish affairs and was practical dictator. He directed the course of negotiations at Lausanne which culminated in the Lausanne Treaty, and was early in 1924 unusual force and ability.
UNDERWOOD, OSCAR W., Senator from Alabama; entered the race for Democratic nomination for the presidency in the spring of 1923. He resigned the leadership in the Senate on account of ill health.