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Gordon-Bennett Race

OCT., 1909. the instability due to low speed, and other defects inherent to the particular design.

What the ultimate types will be can hardly be determined yet, but it is evident that we are on the threshold of many remarkable developments.

Balloons. Observation of natural phenomena must have suggested the idea of using balloons, but the inspiration undoubtedly came long after that which induced men to attempt flight by imitating the birds. The rise of smoke and heated air led many of the old physicists to experiment with these agents, and evidence is not wanting that the lifting power of gases lighter than air was known at a very early age.

But for practical purposes we must come to the eighteenth century for the most instructive applications of the idea. The brothers Montgolfier, about 1770, devised paper balloons which, when filled with smoke and heated air, rose to considerable heights. They carried the work to such a stage that animals and finally men were taken up in the air.

No sooner had this been accomplished than a new era was proclaimed in aero- C2 nautics, for writers and inventors imagined that aerial navigation was now feasible.

One wild scheme after another was evolved; wars and invasions were to be conducted by balloon; and passenger services over sea and land were to be arranged. But soon it was seen that the balloon had very limited use, and even when hydrogen and coal gas were later on employed to give more lasting buoyancy to balloons, it was realised that a vessel which had no steering or motive power could not be well employed for locomotive purposes. The mistaken idea of fitting sails was adopted, and many other ingenious efforts were made by means of [AERONAUTICS well out of the range of the enemy's guns, and in future operations it will also be subject to attack from steerable aerial vessels.

Essentially, the balloon is made up of a spherical gas bag from which a car is slung.

A simple valve is fitted so that the gas can be permitted to escape when a descent is to be made. The mouth of the balloon is opened just at the moment of starting so as to permit the gas to expand without bursting the balloon, which would occur if the pressure became too great. In many balloons a ripping panel is fitted which permits of a quicker escape of gas should THE START OF THE GORDON-BENNETT RACE FROM ZURICH, OcT., 1909. PARSEVAL DIRIGIBLE OVERHEAD. oars and wings to supply motive power; but they all failed, and the balloon developed merely as a drifting instrument.

Another Frenchman, M. Charles, improved the structure of the balloon, and practically evolved the type which we know to-day. Many details have been perfected, so that the modern balloon is a very well tested instrument, with a definite but extremely limited sphere of usefulness. Indeed, it is mainly employed for sporting purposes, and to small extent in military operations and research work.

When employed in war, it has to be kept Lambeth Public Libraries a very rapid descent be necessary, as, for instance, if the aeronauts found themselves suddenly heading for the open sea.

Coal gas is generally used for filling balloons, owing to its cheapness and the ease with which it can be obtained. Volume for volume, coal gas is half as heavy as air, and 1,000 cubic ft. of the gas will lift about 40 lb. at sea-level. Hydrogen is considerably lighter than coal gas, and has nearly double the lifting power, volume for volume. The air is usually heaviest or most dense at sea-level, and as a balloon rises it reaches air which is less dense, until finally AERONAUTICS] 3 2 THE TATE CENTRAL LIBRARY EARLY BALLOONS.

From a Contemporary Print.

AEROSTATION. 5 A 4 Pare sculp 1. Montgolfier's Balloon. 2. Blanchards. 3. Charles and Roberts. 4- Lunardis. 5. Baldwin's View over the City of Chester, from Lunardis Balloon. Leuba Tablished as the Act directa. Stine 18 1803 by JWZker Montgolfier's balloon was the result of several experiments made by two brothers, Stephen and Joseph Joseph Montgolfier, and the first ascent was made in it in August, 1783. Blanchard's was the property of M. Jean Pierre Blanchard, who made a successful journey across the channel in it. Charles and Roberts made an ascent in their balloon from Paris in 1783. Lunardi's balloon was practically the first introduced into this country, and the ascent took place in 1784 before the Prince of Wales. a condition of equilibrium is attained in the rarefied air of the upper atmosphere.

Bags of ballast are carried, and this can be thrown out for the purpose of lightening the load, and thus giving increased lift if this is required. There is a gradual wastage of gas, and this must be made up for by reducing the load carried. Otherwise the vessel would sink too low. Ballast [AERONAUTICS meet with enormous resistance from the air if driven through it by mechanical means, and even before these means were available several designs of gas envelopes had been worked out to give less resistance. Fishor spindle-like shapes naturally suggested themselves, and many modifications were produced, but all may be said to be shaped with blunt or pointed ends and THE START OF A BALLOON RACE AT HURLINGHAM, MAY, 1909. also serves a very important purpose in manœuvring the balloon.

The sport of ballooning is one of the most attractive known, and, properly undertaken, it is by no means dangerous nor unduly expensive. It forms an excellent training for the more serious work of handling steerable vessels, though it does not follow that the balloonist is the best man to entrust with the latter type of vessel, owing to the many new problems introduced. Nor does it indicate that he has any special qualification for aviation, as is too often claimed.

Dirigible Balloons or Dirigibles. The spherical balloon, by its shape, must needs gradually increasing towards the region of greatest diameter.

To spindle-shaped gas envelopes various forms of mechanical devices were fitted during the eighteenth century, in order to obtain propulsive power, but the attempts were destined to be failures until some economical and light form of motor was discovered. The lifting power of a balloon is relatively small, as we have already seen, and exceedingly light engines are, therefore, required for aerial work.

Despite many disadvantages, very remarkable results were obtained by various experimenters in the last century, and to Giffard, Haenlein, Renard, and Krebs great AERONAUTICS] THE BALLOT MOTOR OF 4 CYLINDER 40 H.P., ZODIAC III., BELONGING TO COUNT HENRI DE VAULX. credit must be given for the manner in which they devised gas envelopes, which were well calculated to be serviceable. The proportions of the Renard and Krebs vessel were arrived at by dint of long study and experiment, and represent almost the first really scientific effort made in the building of dirigibles.

Small electric motors were fitted to a dirigible about 1884 by Renard and Kreb, and several short journeys were accomplished at a low speed ere the electrical power was exhausted. But it was seen that the necessary propulsive energy could not be obtained by stored or secondary force, and later experiments to fit steam engines were also unsuccessful, since the weight of the engines was excessive.

Thus a practicable form of vessel was impossible until a suitable engine was available, and we can pass over the many unsuccessful attempts to produce useful [AERONAUTICS was attainable in any branch of aeronautics, save ballooning, until the petrol motor was developed, and the application of this engine was in many cases made by a new order of experimenters, as the older school of aeronauts was very conservative on the point. Aeronautics had drifted into a mere abstract science, in which worthy men discussed the subject very learnedly from year to year, but accomplished very little of a practical nature. Until the motor engineers brought them a new and marvellous engine, the aeronauts were unable to apply suitable power to their machines, and the problem of flight was generally regarded as impossible.

Several inventors who were experimenting with dirigibles saw the possibility of the internal combustion engine, but years elapsed ere this type of motor was successfully employed on an aerial vessel. One of the most daring experimenters was Santos THE CAR AND RIGGING OF THE ZODIAC III. dirigibles ere the petrol motor had been rendered suitable. A period of reaction followed, and the idea was not taken up vigorously again until motor-racing, late in the nineteenth century, had called attention to the rapid improvements which were being effected in the internal combustion engine.

It may be said that no practical success Dumont, who, about 1899, fitted a petrol engine to a small cigar-shaped balloon, and in 1900 accomplished several remarkable trips. He built quite a number of dirigibles, all of small size, and with these he carried out various daring journeys above Paris which drew the attention of the world to the new mode of locomotion.

Other experimenters followed suit, and AERONAUTICS] within a brief period many dirigibles were built. It was soon apparent that the designs of most of them were defective, and that a good deal had yet to be done ere practicable ships could be evolved. A series of disasters drew attention to these defects, and it was gradually learned from bitter experithe simplest form to construct, as it is merely a balloon of spindle shape from which the car is slung. From its cheapness and simplicity, it came most generally into use, and it is still solely employed by the British military authorities, although it is the least suited for warlike purposes.

ZEPPELIN II. IN FULL FLIGHT OVER LAKE CONSTANCE. ence that the problem of aerial navigation was far from being solved.

Whilst most of the experimenters adopted a flexible gas bag from which the car with engine and crew was suspended, another school worked on the idea of making a rigid envelope and fitting within this a series of gas bags. Yet another school sought by various methods to stiffen the usual flexible gas bag, and so three main types of dirigibles were developed. Even the rigid type, however, had been thought of in the eighteenth century, but not until later in the nineteenth century could any practical application be made of the principle.

These classes of dirigibles may be set forth as follows :- (1) Non-rigid. (2) Semi-rigid. (3) Rigid.

There are many obvious disadvantages in a vessel of this type, the most pronounced and incurable being that of slow speed.

Now speed is the dominant factor in dirigible building, since an efficient vessel must have a speed higher than the average wind speed if it is to be safely used with any frequency. The ordinary non-rigid dirigible has a still-air speed of 10 to 15 miles an hour, which means that it cannot travel directly against a moderate breeze. As the ship gains in speed, its range of utility increases, and it can with greater safety be employed on days when a slow vessel would have to remain in its shed.

The gas envelope of the non-rigid balloon keeps its shape by the internal pressure of the gas, aided by balloonets through which compressed air is pumped. But this shape is deformed if the vessel is forced through Non-rigid Dirigibles. The non-rigid is the air at high speed, and this deformation adds considerably to the wind resistance, thereby slowing the ship. There is danger of the envelope buckling, or twisting, or even breaking its back if the wind pressure or the weight of the car is suddenly concentrated too much on any one portion. The car is slung by cables a considerable distance below the gas envelope, and the propeller or propellers are mounted either beside the car or a little above it. As the propulsive force is thus applied far away from the envelope which meets with most resistance, the arrangement is very un- [AERONAUTICS ship has been designed to prevent, as far as possible, the deformation of the flexible gas envelope. The best-known type is the Lebaudy, which has been adapted for the French military service. Here the gas envelope is given a very pointed prow, and then deepens rather suddenly to its maximum diameter. This deep central portion is borne on a metal framework, which forms a secure base for the whole structure.

Underneath the frame is the car, which is kept well up to the frame, thus constituting a much better arrangement than the non- A FRONT VIEW OF THE ZEPPELIN II. mechanical, and an enormous amount of energy is wasted. Consequently, through the immense loss of power and the great resistance, this type of ship has a low speed, and if abnormally large motors were fitted with the aim of producing higher speeds, it would be found that many new and serious complications would arise. Several improvements have been effected of late years by making the cars almost as long as the gas envelopes, and by suspending them in such a manner that the whole vessel is much more rigidly braced together. This arrangement has permitted of higher speeds being attained.

Semi-rigid Dirigibles. - The semi-rigid rigid type. Fitted with powerful engines driving two propellers, the latest ships of this type have accomplished speeds up to thirty miles an hour.

In Germany the Gross is the best-known specimen of the semi-rigid, and this is similar to the Lebaudy in many respects, though it is not planned on such graceful lines. The Parseval, the other type of German military vessel, is generally known as a non-rigid, but although the envelope is not supported on a frame, the car has been suspended in a manner which permits of the propulsive power being far more economically applied than ordinarily. The ship is very powerfully engined, and has shown AERONAUTICS] speeds of over 20 miles an hour. But this class of vessel will always be wasteful in power, and high speed will only be attainable by the fitting of such large engines that the carrying and fuel capacity of the vessel will be much reduced. It is probable, too, that further complications will be set up if really high speeds are attempted, which will make the equipment of these ships with very powerful engines undesirable.

Rigid Dirigibles. - We now come to the rigid-envelope dirigible, which marks the Buoyancy was obtained, but a new defect arose in that the vessel, when brought to earth by releasing some of the gas, struck the ground with such force as to be seriously damaged. The outer shell was so fragile that it was able to withstand very little impact with a solid object, and as landing with a balloon is always a delicate operation, the rigid airship was subject to such buffeting that it was open to serious damage.

To cope with this difficulty, Count Zeppelin decided to carry out his experiments with rigid vessels over water, and, A BACK VIEW OF THE ZEPPELIN II. most important development in airship construction. Balloons have always been made of very light and flexible material, since these were practically the only substances available which would allow vessels of the usual size to rise in the air, carrying a useful load. The weight of rigid structures would be necessarily heavier than envelopes made of silk or thin fabric.

But several experimenters, as far back as 1871, saw that by increasing the size of the gas envelope it would be possible to use a wooden or even a metal framework; and an early manifestation of this idea was shown by Schwartz, who built an aluminium vessel which had within it a gas bag. by his exploits over Lake Constance, he has brought this type of aerial vessel into prominence. Other workers experimented with wooden frames, and the idea is still believed in by many experts. Indeed, in the present year several ships in which wood is largely used are under construction.

But the Zeppelin ship is the best example of the rigid type, and its gallant inventor has lived through some of the most trying experiences that have ever beset a pioneer.

He has had to convince the world of aeronauts that his ideas were not impracticable, and in England at present there are many theorists who still maintain that Zeppelin is working on wrong lines. The best refuta- [AERONAUTICS THE FRENCH MILITARY DIRIGIBLE "LIBERTÉ.' tion of this is that the Zeppelin ship has now surpassed all other dirigibles in speed, ascensive power, duration in the air, and length of voyage, and these practical tests should be quite convincing. Nevertheless, much remains to be done ere this type of vessel can be made thoroughly practicable; and owing to its enormous initial cost and the high working expenses, few nations can afford to have vessels of this class.

The Zeppelin ship is made up of a framework of aluminium, very skilfully planned on the girder principle to give great strength with extreme lightness. Over the main girders is a lattice work, and over this is fabric sheeting of rubberised cotton, which entirely covers in the skeleton framework.

The main body is over 400 ft. long, and is divided into sixteen or more compartments, each with aluminium partitions. In each compartment is an independent gas bag filled with hydrogen. By this arrangement the outer shell of fabric stretched on its metal frame takes all the wind resistance, and whatever the speed, there is no deformation. The vessel is like a great sixteen-side pencil, long and narrow, with the ends rounded, and thus it can cut through the air with very little resistance.

Close under the main body two cars are placed, each having an engine driving propellers mounted on the sides of the main envelope. Deflecting planes are mounted on the vessel, and these, by being also tilted in the required direction, enable the vessel to be driven upwards or downwards in a slanting manner like an aeroplane. The whole ship is very compact, presents a relatively small surface to the air in front when travelling through it, and thus gets far better results in net driving power from its engine than any of the other deep-sectioned and loosely connected vessels of the nonrigid and semi-rigid type. was From the scientific and the mechanical standpoint, the Zeppelin ship is as much in advance of the other types as the modern high-speed turbine steamer is ahead of the old paddle steamers; but through a curious conservatism the matter will not be admitted by the older schools of aeronauts, and they still continue to urge the most fantastic objections against the Zeppelin. It pointed out, for instance, by experts that the Zeppelin could not come down safely on pointed land, and this was accomplished to refute them. It was urged that Count Zeppelin could not keep his ship anchored in a high wind; but yet in March and June, 1909, it rode out severe storms when the ship was aerial vessel is unable to ride out a storm merely anchored in a meadow. Any other AERONAUTICS] when at anchorage in the open, owing to the buffeting it receives by reason of its bulky and flabby shape. But the Zeppelin, kept with its nose to the wind, can be handled far more safely.

The design, like that of all other airships, is yet crude, and a serious objection is the high cost of construction, between £25,000 and £50,000. The great length, too, has many disadvantages as regards manœuvring and housing. But, all things considered, the rigid type of ship offers greatest promise of success, for alone of all others it lends itself to high speed.

When an aerial vessel is running at high speed, it is least subject to those disturbing influences which at lower speeds occasion so many difficulties and dangers. The first axiom of safety is high speed, since, unless a ship has a speed well in excess of the normal wind power, it will be hampered by this, and on occasion may be seriously endangered. It may be taken as a general rule that a ship cannot be sent out when the wind is blowing at a speed higher than the average speed of the ship. From this it follows that a vessel with an average speed of ten miles an hour can only safely be sent out when the wind is eight or nine miles an hour. This means that only for a relatively small number of days per annum can such a ship safely leave its shed. The higher the effective speed of the airship, the more frequently can it set forth, and the dirigible with speeds up to forty or fifty miles an hour can be employed on most days of the year.

With the space available it is not possible to give details of all the dirigibles built in recent years, and as they fall into the three main classes already dealt with, this is not necessary for present purposes. Suffice it. to say that all the Great Powers of Europe have now tested to some degree aerial vessels with a view to adopting them for naval or military purposes; and in various countries vessels have been built for sport and other purposes. France has led the way with non-rigid and semi-rigid dirigibles, and Germany and Italy have also been successful with vessels of this type. The rigid craft has so far been developed almost entirely in Germany. England has hitherto been content with non-rigid vessels, but the naval authorities are constructing an experimental rigid dirigible. Uses and Applications of Airships.- Aerial vessels are of such recent origin that they cannot yet be said to have attained a position in which their uses are clearly recognised and their scope well defined.

But it would be absurd to assert that they THE FRENCH MILITARY DIRIGIBLE, "LIBERTÉ," IN FLIGHT. have neither use nor practical application.

Indeed, if they failed completely as commercial or military vessels, they would still have a certain value as instruments of sport and scientific research. But every day more clearly shows that aerial vessels will have a wide range of application ultimately.

THE GROSS II., SEMI-RIGID GERMAN MILITARY DIRIGIBLE IN FLIGHT.

At the same time we must not be carried away by the many ridiculous claims put forward for the new locomotion. In the opening section it was shown that there were various factors which rendered aerial navigation difficult, and all these serve to limit its practical utility. It may be opportune now to set forth comparatively the advantages and disadvantages of aerial navigation, assuming a stage of development somewhat in advance of the actual state at present, for in this new science some allowance must be made for future development, or else the remarks made would be vitiated by the time these lines are in print.

Advantages:- The air offers a new medium absolutely free from obstruction.

Beeline travelling possible over land and sea. [AERONAUTICS Enormous saving, therefore, in distance and time.

Unique facilities offered for observation work over a wide area, a factor of the greatest importance in warfare.

The most delightful and invigorating form of travel.

Probable availability for high-speed passenger services.

Will help to open up regions where other forms of locomotion are slow and dangerous.

Disadvantages:- Aerial disturbances more frequent and greater than those on sea or land.

Navigation more liable, therefore, to interruption.

Continuous and punctual services improbable.

Uncertainty, and lack of reliability.

Serious dangers incurred.

Possibility of other and unknown factors further limiting the use of aerial vessels practically.

High initial cost, the small loads carried, and the dangers incurred may prevent a very wide application.

From this general survey of the prevailing conditions it will be seen that at least for a considerable time to come there will be little prospect of the airship being used either for the regular transport of passengers or goods. The uncertainty, the delays, the high cost, and the small loads possible, all militate against such a use.

Nevertheless, schemes are in progress both in France and Germany for the establishment of aerial passenger services. Hitherto the main application has been to military purposes, and probably aerial machines will always be of most use in warfare. If for no other reason than the commanding view afforded by its use, the aerial vessel should be assured of its place in warlike equipment. The art of war is mainly made up of strategy that is to say, working out surprise movements against an enemy, and it best succeeds in the case where a leader knows accurately the power , disposition, and movements of the enemy, whilst he keeps similar facts about his own force secret.

The airship will permit a general to trace every movement of the enemy hours before the latter can strike, since range of vision increases with altitude, and at a normal height for an aerial vessel the country for forty miles can be examined in every direction. The leader, provided with airships, AERONAUTICS] can thus follow every movement of the enemy, and can make dispositions to checkmate the latter. With tolerably equal forces opposed to him, he should thus have the better chance of securing victory by handling his troops more scientifically. When both sides adopt airships, a new phase of warfare will be observable, since it will be highly essential to first of all secure aerial supremacy, or else the secrecy of the subsequent operations on land or sea will be interfered with. The fallacious idea is yet held that aerial ships need not be employed by an army, as, if suitable guns are mounted, they can shoot down all such vessels used by an army. This argument might answer in the case of airships coming within range of the enemy's guns; but it is forgotten that for observation purposes an airship, by increasing its altitude, can detect an enemy's movements and yet keep out of range of his fire.

Every important move of a force on land pensable. A relatively smaller force aided by such accurate information as airships would afford might with skilful handling be able to check or even defeat a larger body which moved against it, and trusted to the usual methods for gaining intelligence.

Indeed, the airships of the smaller force, by locating the advance parties of the enemy, could cause such dispositions to be made that the movements of its own side would be quite screened from the larger force, and this might be led into many traps.

Aided by telephone, wireless telegraphy, and other signalling devices, a few airships could keep the whole army in perfect touch with the movements of the opposite side. For naval work also, the airship in its various forms may be employed, but, owing to the high winds which prevail at sea or on the coast, high-speed and reliable aerial vessels will be needed for this service.

A wider field opens out when we consider airships as fighting units. Some form THE GROSS II. DURING MILITARY MANŒUVRES AT COLOGNE. or sea could be detected, and even many night operations could be traced by an airship without this being liable to serious danger from attack, and thus its employment for observation purposes is indisof armament will of necessity be carried, since, in order to break down the observation system of an enemy, the rival force will endeavour to destroy its aerial fleet.

War amongst airships must follow as a consequence of the vessels being used by both sides; and, as a further development, aerial vessels will be fitted out for making attack on land and sea forces by despatching against them explosive shells and other missiles. Expert opinion is divided on the utility of such operations, many people holding that it is impossible to carry out this form of attack with reasonable accuracy.

Undoubtedly there are many serious diffi- [AERONAUTICS other form of watch by land or sea can be quite effective against swift and silent objects travelling in the sky. Like must meet like.

Uses and Applications of Flying Machines. - Matters are yet not sufficiently advanced enough to enable one fully to determine what the future development of the flying machine will be. At present the most practicable type is the double-deck A NON-RIGID DIRIGIBLE, THE "DEUTSCH" AIRSHIP. culties. Nevertheless, it seems probable that human ingenuity will overcome the present defects, and due provision must be made for the possibility of aerial vessels carrying out night or early morning attacks on capital cities, railway stations, barracks, magazines, naval bases, fleets at anchor, and even field forces. The moral effect of these attacks from above will be serious, and cannot be overrated, and the fact that they may be feared at any hour of the night from almost any quarter of the compass will have a very unnerving effect on forces which are not properly protected against them. The only adequate defence is by airship, for no aeroplane, and next to it ranks the monoplane, each of these being of the fabriccovered, fixed plane type, with screw propellers. There are many thinkers who hold that the fabric surface will be replaced by a rigid material, that the screw propeller will be superseded, and that even the fixed planes will be improved upon.

It is quite probable that in the material and design the aeroplane will change considerably; but there is little likelihood of the screw propeller and the fixed plane being superseded. There will also be development undoubtedly in the vertical lift machines, the wing-flapping types, and the AERONAUTICS] various combinations of these. Given sufficient engine power, almost all these machines can be made to rise or move through the air; and the process of elimination will bring out which is safest, most useful, and most economical in power.

Flying machines will unquestionably be considerably increased in speed, and to a lesser degree in lifting power. But the many cases, action, as when carrying out destructive an independent range of raids.

Future Developments. As regards the size of dirigibles, the latest Zeppelin measures some 446 ft. in length. The practicable limit will probably be about 500 ft. or 550 ft., and this length might be much reduced with advantage, as the great length THE PARSEVAL AIRSHIP BEING FILLED AT ZURICH. task of building really large machines will be fraught with difficulty and danger, as it is not merely a matter of multiplying the dimensions of the smaller machines. In several respects the problem will be a totally new one, and until a good deal of practical experience is gained in the building and employment of small machines, it will hardly be desirable to launch large vessels of the heavier-than-air type.

Flying machines will have many special uses, and for naval and military work they will offer several advantages not possessed by dirigibles. Each will fulfil separate functions, the flying machines being smaller, swifter, more mobile, and thus adapted for use in attendance upon field forces or naval fleets; whilst the dirigibles will be more as auxiliaries to land and sea forces, with, in increases the cost and the difficulty of manœuvring and housing. The Zeppelin requires greater length than the other dirigibles, owing to her heavier build; and, indeed, for the non-rigids and semi-rigids, it has not been found desirable to exceed 300 ft. in length.

With the present dimensions, improved carrying capacity will be attained by better design, more careful choice of materials, and, most important, by improved engines, which, whilst being more powerful, will be lighter and more economical in the consumption of fuel. Improved methods of propulsion will give considerable assistance also, since they will enable lighter engines to be used, and will permit of greater supplies of fuel being carried without increasing the total weight of the ship. in a We can summarise the line of development of both flying machine and dirigible few words-efficiency and speed.

With greater efficiency the vessels of the future will be far more practicable than those at present. The question of speed is of immense importance, since it governs all the other considerations. The safety of the vessel, her power to be used on frequent occasions, and her ability to contend against the sudden aerial disturbances which may arise, will all depend on the speed to be derived from her propellers.

Taking speed as the criterion of safety and efficiency, it would seem that the rigid ship must ultimately prevail as the best type of dirigible, though improved forms of semi-rigids may always find a more limited use, and have advantages by reason of their simplicity and cheapness. For the nonrigid, however, there seems very little hope.

The rigid ship will be best suited for [AERONAUTICS the ascensive power, the shape and size of the envelope, the disposition of the mechanism, and countless other problems are only now being investigated, and we may expect many great changes in design ere an established type will be arrived at.

With regard to the relative importance of the dirigible and the aeroplane, many opinions are expressed, and, generally speaking, the advocates of one type can see no advantage whatsoever in the other. It would be more reasonable to take the view that the large dirigible and the smaller flying machine will have different functions, whether used for naval or military purposes, or in sport or commerce.

The dirigible, by its greater carrying power, wider range of travel, and greater ascensional power, will be employed on warlike operations, night journeys and even destructive raids, whilst the aeroplane will be kept more closely in attendance upon the force it is attached to. Its main occupa- CLEMENT CLEMENT A BAYARD CLEMENT AIRSHIP. high-powered engines, and will get the best propulsive power from them. She will thus have higher speed and a greater range of action, whilst her margin of safety will be better than that of slower ships. The storage of gas in the buoyancy chambers, tion in warfare will be observation and despatch work.

In sport, too, the vessels will be employed in different manners. The dirigibles will be more costly, and require more elaborate arrangements, whilst the aeroplane eventu- AERONAUTICS] THE FIRST FLIGHT OF THE NEW RUSSIAN AIRSHIP, "RUSSIE. ally may become a cheap instrument, available to a large number of people, and applicable to many special purposes. This point merits attention, for there is a disposition to treat the various types of aerial vessels as antagonistic, the view being held that flying machines will entirely supersede dirigibles, or vice versa. In the present stage of the science it is far more advisable to consider every practicable type, and develop each as far as possible.

MONTAGU OF BEAULIEU. of M.

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Baden-Powell (Blackwood), 1907; The Pocket- Book of Aeronautics, Herman W. L. Mordebeck, translated by W. M. Varley (Whittaker), 1907; Aerial Navigation of To-day, Ch. C. Turner (Seeley), 1909; Balloons and Flying Machines, Lord Montagu and The Car; Flying Machines, Past, Present, and Future: A Popular Account, A. W. Marshall and H. Greenley (Percival Marshall), 1909; Aerial Warfare, R. P. Hearne (Jno. Lane), 1909. N.B. - Most of the following are in progress, and contain valuable articles:-The Aeronautical Journal, Aeronautical Society of