Home › P › Process IV

Process IV

- Commence at the middle and whip to near the head, tie in rolled reverse or Tweed upright wings as before described, bind on the hackle behind the wings, whip to the tail and back to the shoulder, putting in any necessary materials as before. Turn and secure the hackle, and finish at the shoulder. Or Irish wings may be used with the finish at the head.

Fourth Series.

To dress Winged Palmers or Sedges.- Process I. - This is identical with Process I. of the Second Series, except that ordinary wings are whipped on before the hackle is bound in.

Process II.-Beginning in the middle of the hook, wind to the head, binding in the gut. Here tie in rolled, reversed, or Tweed upright wings, cut away the stumps, form the head, and tie in the hackle or hackles behind the wings. The rest of the process is identical with Process III. of the Second Series.

Substantially and in principle the foregoing are all the methods for tying small flies on gut.

May-flies do not differ in principle from small flies, and the methods of tying on eyed hooks can readily be learned by discarding so much of the above processes as is devoted to securing the gut to the hook, and by a modification of the processes described next for dry flies.

Floating Flies. For floating flies, eyed hooks present such advantages that it is proposed to treat the subject as synonymous with floating flies on eyed hooks. For those who prefer to dress them on gut, it is only necessary so to bind on the gut as to leave the silk in position to proceed with the rest of the fly in the same places as those in which one begins on an eyed hook in the following methods. [TROUT FLY DRESSING side, round under the hook, back between the wings, and down between the wire and the further stump, then back to the other side of the wing. If the wing be ordinary, draw back the stumps, bind them under the hook, and in any case cut off slantingly so as to taper the body towards the tail. There are many variations in this method for which space is not available.

To dress a Wingless Fly hackled at Shoulder only.-Fix the hook in the vice as before. Wax a length of silk, commence whipping near the shoulder and whip to the shoulder, leaving space to wind the hackles on bare metal, and finish at the eye. Bind on one, two, or three hackles according to need, and whip back to the bend, taking off the stumps so as to taper the body. Here bind in whisks if they are required, quill, floss, or herl for the body and any ribbing material required. If the body be dubbed, roll on the dubbing. Whip to the shoulder, wind in the body and ribbing, and secure it. Then wind the hackle or hackles, the hindmost first, securing them by bringing the silk through each, binding down the successive turns of hackle. Finish at the eye with the whip finish.

The insects imitated are the same in both methods save that the March brown is never seen on many dry-fly waters. The artificial patterns differ from wet-fly patterns (1) in being more thickly dressed in hackle and wing, (2) in being as far as possible so constructed as to absorb little water and to throw it off readily in drying, and (3), in the winged patterns, in the wings being split and so built as to let the flv down on the water with the wings upright and cocked. the eye same in both The types are four, viz.: (I) wingless flies hackled at the shoulders only, (2) winged flies similarly hackled, (3) palmers or bumbles, and (4) winged palmers or bumbles, usually called sedges.

Types 1 and 2 sometimes have detached bodies.

May-flies differ in detail, but in no essential point of principle, from smaller flies, but the spent gnat requires a special description.

It will be convenient first to describe the process of winging, of which there are several varieties. but all are available for every kind of winged floater except May-flies.

Beginning near the eye, but leaving room for the head and wings, whip towards the tail six or seven turns, binding down the short end and thence back to the starting point. Twitch off the short end. Take corresponding feathers from opposite sides of the same bird, and cut slips from each to form single or double or rolled wings, as the case may be. If the wings are to be double lay two slips from the same feather or from adjoining feathers from one wing and lay one on top of another so that the points and edges correspond. Do likewise with the other wing.

Then lay the feather for one wing precisely on the top of the feather for the other, and take them up in the pliers, place them crosswise between the finger and thumb, so that, if the wings be ordinary, they slope backwards with the natural curve of the feather towards the tail, and if they are to be reversed or rolled they project over the eye and bring down the feather on to the book. Bring the silk up between the thumb and the feather, down again between the feather and finger on the far side, hold the feather firmly with the finger and thumb and draw down the silk firmly, pass it once round, and behind or in front of the wing, according to the nature of the wing, and release the feather. The wings should now set apart in a V shape. Bring the silk up between the near stump and the metal. pass between the wings and down on the far To dress a Palmer or Bumble. This is dressed precisely like the last, except that the last hackle, instead of being turned at the shoulder, is wound in open folds to the tail, and there secured by two turns of gold or silver wire or twist.

The twist is then wound in similarly spaced laps to the shoulder and there secured, and the waste end cut off. The remaining hackles or hackle are then wound at the shoulder and secured, and the fly finished with the whip finish at the eye.

That is the soundest method. But another plan is to tie in body materials and ribbing at the shoulder, wind and secure the front hackle, whip the silk to the tail, wind on the body material, and secure it at the tail, bring down the last hackle in open laps to the tail, and secure it.

Wind the ribbing down the body so as to support and secure the turns of the hackle; secure it at the tail. cut off the waste end, and finish at the tail with the whin finish.

To dress a Winged Floating Fly hackled at the Shoulder only. Having tied on the wings as previously described, next tie in at the shoulder so as to pass when wound either in front of the wings or, immediately behind them one cock's hackle, in the former case face or bright side. downwards, in the latter case with bright side flat against hook and wing. Tie in a second cock's hackle to wind behind the wing, whip to near ne the bend of the hook, breaking or cutting off the roots of the hackle en route so as to taper the body. Bind in the whisks at the tail and take one turn under them. Then tie down herl. quill, floss, tinsel, or whatever the body material is to be (except dubbing), and the ribbing, if any, and whip back to the shoulder. If dubbing be used, spin on the dubbing before whipping back. Wind the body material and ribbing, if any, to the shoulder. Make fast at the shoulder with two turns of silk. Wind the hinder hackle so as to force the wings upright and bring the silk through so as to secure the turns. Wind the front hackle, secure it in like manner, and finish at the head with the whip finish. Some dressers only use one hackle wound altogether in front of or altogether behind or partly before and partly behind the wings, and they finish with the whip finish, or two turns behind the wings.

The latest novelty is to use vet a third hackle, a hen's or other soft plumaged bird's in front of the wings, or, in wingless hackled floaters, instead of them.

To dress a Winged Palmer, Sedge, or Rail. - Having tied on the wings as before described, TUNA] tie in two cocks' hackles as described in the last method, and a third for winding down the body, whip to the tail, tie in the body material, unless it be dubbing, and some fine wire, and twist and whip back to the shoulder. Wind on the body material and secure at the shoulder, cutting off the waste ends. Wind the hindmost hackle in open laps to the tail, secure with a turn or two of the wire or twist, and bring that through the successive turns of the hackle to the shoulder.

Here secure it and cut away the waste. Wind the second hackle close behind the wings, and the first close in front, securing each as before described, and finish with the whip finish.

To dress Detached Bodied Flies. - Detached bodies are usually of india-rubber, gut, or hair wound on a split hog's bristle, doubled round a hook, the whisks being bound in at the tail. The bristle is subsequently set astride the eyed hook, behind the wings if the fly be winged, otherwise behind the hackle, and there bound on and the binding covered by the body material. The waste ends of bristles are cut off and the fly is then finished in the ordinary way. are But detached bodies are of less importance than they were, for almost as good an effect can be had by using dyed or plain horsehair or gut on the bare hook, tying it in at the shoulder and winding to the tail, binding in the whisks in so doing, and thence winding back to the shoulder.

To dress Floating May-flies. These either hackled at shoulder only or down the body, and are either winged or wingless. If they are winged the winging is performed just as in the case of small flies, substituting the stalk of the mallard breast or other similar feather for the stumps of the small feather. The methods of forming the body and putting on the hackles, ribbing-tags, &c., do not differ in principle from those applied to similar ends for small flies.

Straw bodies used to cause much heartbreaking, but raffia grass can be wound like a quill and serve the same purpose.

Spent Gnats (representing the dying or dead spinner of the May-fly) are hackled all down the body, and are winged with two pairs of dark blue or black glossy cocks' hackles, tied so as to project horizontally to right and left of the hook, with a slight backward slope from the shoulder.

G. E. M. SKUES.

TUNA or TUNNY (Thunnus thynnus). This is, with the exception of some of the largest sharks, the biggest game of the sea-angler, and it gives more sport than any shark, behaving, in fact, when hooked, like the gigantic mackerel that its appearance suggests. The present writer has seen examples swimming alongside his boat in Cape Breton waters that must have exceeded 12 ft. in length, and approximated 1,000 lb. in weight. The fish goes by various names.

The ordinary English word is tunny, tuna being an American equivalent (from the Spanish), originally used on the coast of California, and more particularly at Santa Catalina Island. The Portuguese of Madeira know it as atun or rabilhe, and its smaller congeners, which weigh respectively up to 100 and 70 lb., as patudos and avoador.

The French of the Biscay coast call it thon, the Italians tonno. In Cape Breton and Newfoundland waters, where sportsmen have latterly introduced the American name, it was always known to the native fishermen, in allusion to its appearance and to various well-known habits, as the horse-mackerel, mackerel-shark, jumper, or squid-hound, the last because it may often be seen in those seas chasing the squid on the surface of the water.

Description. The tuna is a handsome, mackerel-like fish, wonderfully built for speed. The body is deep and torpedo- THREE TUNA, EACH OVER 100 LBS., CAUGHT IN ONE DAY AT SANTA CATALINA, BY MR. CONN. shaped, as unlike that of the tarpon in form as in colouring, as it is of a dark blue and white only on the belly. The tail is deeply forked, and the scythe-like back fin is very conspicuous when the fish is cruising near the top of the water, often suggesting at first glance a shark. A number of little yellow "finlets" lie along either edge of the tapering body just in front of the tail.

Geographical Range. Also unlike the tarpon, so far as we know at present (though the writer heard of tarpon in Australian waters, but failed to confirm the statement), the tuna has an almost world-wide distribution, in the matter of both latitude and longitude, occurring in hot and cold seas alike. The tarpon has hitherto been caught for sport only in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean and on the West Coast of Africa. The tuna, on the other hand, has been commercially fished for from time immemorial round Madeira and other Atlantic islands, on the coast of Spain, and throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea, while it has of recent years been an object of sport at Santa Catalina Island, in California, and at Cape Breton Island, in Eastern Canada.

Scores have been caught on rod and line in Californian waters by Mr. C. F. Holder, Mr. C. G. Conn, and others, and one of the largest was taken by Mrs. Dickerson, a lady member of the Tuna Club. As a matter of fact, it was not an American subject at all, but Mr. Greer Campbell, who caught the first Californian tuna on rod and line, though for some reason he had to qualify with a later capture as a member of the Tuna Club. The first big fish taken on the recognised tackle, which led to the formation of the Tuna Club, was Mrs. Holder's, of 183 lb., in 1898, and it was beaten by the tuna of 251 lb. (still the record) taken by Colonel Morehouse, also a resident of Pasadena. From a list sent to me by Mr.

T. S. Manning, a director of the Club, it appears that since 1900 upwards of 1,300 tuna have been taken at Catalina, a total TROLLING FOR YELLOWTAIL AT SANTA CATALINA. which, however, includes a number of yellow-fin tuna (T. maculatus), a smaller kind much in evidence during the past three years. With regard to the far heavier tuna of Cape Breton (those of California do not appear to exceed 300 lb., whereas a fish of that weight would be unusually small in the more northern waters), they have so far eluded capture, though many amateurs, resident and visiting, have endeavoured to catch one. It appears, however, that an American angler, Mr. E. T. Townsend, succeeded, as recently as September, 1910, in capturing two of quite small size off the New Jersey Coast.

To this gentleman, therefore, belongs the honour of catching the first authentic Atlantic tuna on rod and line, though, needless to say, the problem of killing one of the Cape Breton monsters will be found very different.

Habits, &c. The tuna is essentially a predatory fish. In this, again, it differs from the tarpon, as that giant herring evidently lives on dead food as well as on [TUNA other fishes. This is why still-fishing, as described by Mr. Otis Mygatt in an earlier article, would not answer with the tuna, which can be taken only by trolling. It preys on all manner of food, chiefly, according to the locality, on flying-fish, mackerel. herring, gaspereau, and squid. The gaspereau, it may be explained, is not unlike a herring or a small shad. It is very plentiful in the bays of Nova Scotia, and ascends the rivers to breed in lakes and backwaters.

Like the majority of fishes, the tuna varies in its habits from day to day, now jumping at the surface, then cruising round in schools, with just the curved fin showing above the water, or, again, sulking at the bottom. Nor is it easy to associate these different kinds of behaviour with any constant conditions of weather or temperature. As regards the tuna of Cape Breton waters, actual observation suggests that the fish were more in evidence at the surface on hot, bright days, and that they usually began to move at the turn of the tide after low water.

The tuna is a great wanderer. Every spring it travels the whole length of the Mediterranean, and makes its way through the Dardanelles and Bosphorus to its spawning grounds in the Black Sea. Where the schools spend the winter is at present a mystery to which only further investigation of the deeper parts of the Atlantic and Pacific will probably furnish the solution.

They are seen near the land only during the warmer months, and in some years they stay away from Santa Catalina altogether, though no such defection is on record in Cape Breton waters, where the oldest inhabitants remember them as regular summer visitors all their lives. Even where they stay away or refuse a bait, there are, in their m more southern haunts, a number of smaller relatives, like the long-finned albacore (Germo), which afford excellent sport on the rod.

Method of Capture. The tuna is caught for sport wholly by trolling, and the angler uses us a more powerful version of tarpon tackle. The tuna, it must be remembered, is by far the more powerful fish of the two.

It does not, like the other, waste any of its re reserve strength in leaping, but does all its fighting in its own element. This, with its great strength, gives it phenomenal endurance. Mr. J. K. L. Ross, of Montreal, with whom the present writer fished for tuna off Cape Breton, once fought one of these fish for nineteen hours, from eleven on a Saturday morning until six on the Sunday, and then had to let it go! Stronger tackle is therefore necessary than for tarpon, and it should include a reel capable of holding 800 ft. of 39-thread line. At Santa Catalina, tuna-fishermen use the same 6-ft. wire TUNA] leader as for tarpon, but, when fishing in Cape Breton, Mr. Conn, a great authority on tuna fishing, told the writer that he was using a double leader of 12 ft., as these extra large fish cut the line with the back fin. This is a matter of taste, but there is an obvious drawback in using a leader of greater length than the rod, as, when the swivel is reached, it cannot be reeled in further, and the slack would, in the case of so heavy a fish, almost certainly mean disaster when finally bringing it to the gaff. For the general tackle and method of trolling, the writer cannot, by way of saving valuable space, do better than refer to Mr.

Mygatt's excellent account (see TARPON), though, as already mentioned, there is no still-fishing for tuna. Moreover, as the tuna is a much more powerful fish, it is not sufficient to allow it to tow the boat until exhausted, for exhaustion would come much sooner to the angler. It is not improbable that one of the largest Cape Breton tuna could tow a light boat for a week or more.

On the contrary, other tactics more punishing must be adopted, and from the first the fisherman must endeavour to assert the mastery, never giving the tuna a moment's rest, but keeping the boat over it the whole time, and continually putting the utmost strain he dare on the tackle. Some sportsmen fish from a motor-boat, but the present writer is convinced that, in North Atlantic waters at any rate, this has a prejudicial effect on the fishing, and a light but seaworthy rowing boat, with two men at the oars, will offer a better chance of getting up to the fish and of manœuvring it to shallow water when played out.

The Tuna Club. This premier American sea-angling club has more than once been alluded to, and a word may be said of its objects. It was founded in the year 1898 by Mr. C. F. Holder, one of the highest angling authorities in America, and practically the doyen of tuna-fishing. The tuna club, which has comfortable quarters on the beach at Avalon, Santa Catalina, is on friendly terms with the British Sea Anglers' Society, and, of its two honorary members in Europe, the president of that body is ex officio one, and the present writer the other. Its objects are to encourage the use of the rod, as well as other conditions of a higher standard of sportsmanship, in both fresh and salt water, on the Pacific slope. Two subsidiary clubs have been founded under its auspices. One of these is the Light Tackle Club, which offers bronze, silver, and gold buttons for the capture (on tackle of specified lightness) of yellowtail, white sea bass, albacore, and small tuna, up to 50 lb. The other affiliated club is called the "Three Six," or "6-6-6," in allusion to its stipulation that, to win one of its "degrees" for the capture of yellowtail, the angler must use a rod not less than 6 ft. long or more than 6 oz. in weight, with a line no stronger than 6-thread, each thread of a breaking weight of 2 lb. Its secretary is Mr. T. S. Manning.

Other Fishing at Santa Catalina.-For the benefit of those who may have the misfortune to visit Santa Catalina during a season in which the big tunas stay away, a word may not be out of place, in concluding this article, on the admirable sport to be had MR. CONN'S RECORD SWORDFISH. in those waters with a variety of game sea fish, running to several hundred pounds, which, on the light tackle in use there, provide all the excitement the angler could desire. The lightest tackle of all is known as the "Six-six-six," but need not be used.

Indeed, the present writer ventures to regard it as not only eccentric, but also unduly cruel to the large number of fish that necessarily break away with the hook and line in their jaws. The more moderate section of amateurs favour a rod measuring not less than 6 ft., and weighing no more than 9 oz. This is used with a small reel carrying 200 ft. of nine-thread line, which, though used at Santa Catalina for the capture of fish up to 60 lb., is no stouter in appearance, though certainly stronger, than that used in English waters for those weighing a few ounces. The reel is controlled by the thumb of the right hand, protected by a stall of india-rubber. The bait, when trolling for Yellowtail (Seriola) or White Sea-bass (Cynoscion), is either a sardine," bought from the local netsmen, or a large Wilson spoon, and these fish, which give magnificent sport on such tackle, are caught close beside the cliffs, the angler's chief diffi- 66 TWO BLACK SEA BASS (160 AND 130 LB.) CAUGHT BY THE AUTHOR OF THE ARTICLE AT SANTA CATALINA. culty, indeed, being to keep them out of the kelp which grows over the rocks, as, once in that they are lost. When using sardine bait, a little "chum," or ground-bait, is occasionally thrown to the fish to inspire confidence and keep them together. The fishing is all done from an oil-launch, and the local guides are very skilful in bringing this round the shoal without disturbing it. Two or three miles from the shore, Albacore (Germo) and Bonito (Sarda) are caught in the same way, only the fish are not in this case marked down, as in the case of the in-shore kinds, but the fisherman trolls blind" in the deeper water. It is remarked that the capture of an albacore is often immediately followed by a second, but whether these are a pair of opposite sex, or merely two hunting in couples, has ،، [TUNA not been established. Large Swordfish (Xiphias) have also been caught at Santa Catalina on rod and line, and Mr. Conn has killed a number in this way. His best weighed 339 lb. Not very many swordfish are taken in each season at Catalina-nine or ten at most, weighing, on the average, 200 lb. The biggest game of all on that coast is, however, the Black Sea-Bass (Stereolepis), of which the present writer on one occasion before breakfast took a brace weighing together 290 lb. The black sea-bass is also known locally as "Jewfish," but is a much more game fighter than that of the same name on the Florida coast. The method of fishing is as follows: A Barracuta (Sphyrana) is caught by trolling with a spoon on the way to the ground, and a slice weighing two or three pounds is used for bait on ordinary tarpon tackle. The launch is presently anchored over some rough ground a mile beyond the Seal Rocks, and a flag buoy is kept handy, as the moment a fish is hooked, it proceeds, with irresistible strength, to tow the launch out to sea, and the anchor rope must be cast off, with the buoy to mark its whereabouts. The bass puts up a fierce, if not very prolonged, fight, but in the end, like all these heavy ground-feeders, it comes to the top of the water belly upwards and incapable of another kick. The literature of tuna-fishing is too slight to make a bibliography possible, but many of Mr. C. F. Holder's books, and notably The Log of a Sea Angler and The Channel Islands of California, give all the necessary information for its pursuit in those waters, while some particulars of the sport in Cape Breton waters will be found in An Angler's Summer in Canada, by the present writer.

F. G. AFLALO.

TURKEY. The wild turkey is the king of the game birds of North America. It was formely very abundant throughout most portions of the United States, but it is almost as eagerly followed as the deer, and is less well able to protect itself, so that it has now been practically exterminated from most of the Northern States. In the Southern States, however, there are still plenty of places where excellent wild turkey shooting can be obtained. The sport is carried on in several different ways. times the shot-gun is used, and sometimes the rifle. The birds are sometimes baited, corn being scattered about in some place until they get into the habit of going there, and the shooter then lies in wait for them.

More often they are called, a peculiar little whistle being used, and the hunter lying concealed while he imitates the notes either of the gobblers or of the hens. In its Some- TURKEY] essence this is a repetition of moose calling on a small scale, and almost as much skill is necessary, for the wild turkey is an extremely wary bird, and only an expert can call an old gobbler up to a blind.

In the wildest regions it is still possible to enjoy the fun of shooting turkeys or their roosts. Frequently large flocks will make a habit of going to one place to roost, and the hunter can, by taking proper precautions, lie hidden there until they have settled down and night has fallen. The turkeys are then very loth to leave, and frequently a goodly number can be shot, especially if those lowest on the branches sarily evanescent. It was at one time followed a good deal by the Army officers, and some of the ranchmen, in Texas. The method was to start out quite early in the morning to some ground where the birds were known to be feeding away from thick timber, and to get between them and the cover. Then all possible care was used to bring the dogs as near the birds as possible before the latter took alarm. As the turkey sprang into the air the greyhounds raced after him, for they speedily grew to understand their work, and kept an eye on the bird in front of them. If the turkey managed in his first flight to get to cover, WILD TURKEY. are selected, before the others will take flight.

The most sportsmanlike way of killing turkeys, however, is by fair still-hunting with a small calibre rifle. Turkeys are quite noisy, especially in the early morning, and if the still-hunter is out early enough, he can hear them as they fly off from their roosting trees or settle on their feeding grounds. Extreme caution is necessary, for the turkeys are very wary, and the man must be both a good and a quick shot with the rifle.

An even more sporting way of chasing wild turkey is with greyhounds. This is, of course, only possible in country which is open, interspersed here and there with groves, or gullies filled with brushwood; and, of course, turkeys are much quickly killed off in such places than in regions of dense forests, so the sport is necesmore [From a drawing by Archibald Thorburn. or if he crossed such difficult country that the greyhounds were thrown out, the hunt was over; but if the ground was open and fairly level, and the dogs good, they kept him in sight until he lit. The heavy bodied, short-winged turkey is not a bird of strong flight; it gets very tired after going about a mile, and lights. If the greyhounds had been favoured by fortune they were near enough to see the bird as it lit. The turkey then began to run along the ground, but in a minute or so the greyhounds were on him and put him up again. His second flight was always much shorter and slower than the first, for he was now tired. Probably, however, he still kept ahead of the dogs.

If he did not distance them at the outset they gained on him towards the end of his flight as he came toward the ground, and ran underneath, making wonderful springs at the spent bird as he sailed along fifteen or twenty feet above their heads. Sooner or later, as the bird became exhausted and sank nearer the ground, one of these springs would be successful, the sharp teeth would close on the old gobbler, and the chase would be at an end. Even if the turkey distanced his pursuers the second time, they would be on him again very soon, and the third flight was so weak that only the close proximity of cover gave the quarry any show at all. It was usually too exhausted to try a fourth flight. on Mr. Abel Chapman in his very interesting book Wild Spain relates his experience with bustards, and how he followed them on horseback, with the result of finding that after one or two flights the usually wary birds would lie close to the ground and seek to escape observation instead of trusting again to their wings. Under such circumstances it is evident that good greyhounds might take them just as they take wild turkeys.

THEODORE ROOSEVELT. (Copyright in U.S.A.) -- VETERINARY WORK. HORSE None of the domesticated animals associated with man in the pursuit of sport is so liable to disease or so much exposed to injury as the horse. His speed and strength, and the manner in which he is employed, render him especially disposed to accidents, often of the most serious description; while the very artificial life to which he is subjected in order that he may be in the fittest condition to perform the functions imposed on him, predispose him to diseases of various kinds, which demand careful and generally immediate attention.

We shall here refer briefly to some of these diseases and accidents with which the horseman may have to deal before he can obtain professional assistance, and show him how to render first aid to the suffering animal, whether in or out of the stable. 66 Accidents. Wounds. The horse is particularly exposed to wounds, from the simple cut to the wide lacerated tear. According to their character and mode of production, they are usually described as "incised," punctured," "lacerated," and "contused." The incised, or clean-cut wound, is generally the simplest and that most readily dealt with, though much of the success attending its treatment will depend upon its situation and the textures which are divided.

In the treatment of all wounds, cleanliness is of the utmost importance in order to secure rapid and favourable union of the cut surface. Therefore the first thing to be done is to cleanse it from dirt and foreign matters, and if there is much bleeding this may be checked by the application of cold or hot water. If the wound is not large and the part can be bandaged, then the edges should be brought together as evenly as possible, and the bandage applied. It is well to place a piece of fine tow or lint (asepticised) over the wound before the bandage is put on. [TURKEY When the wound is extensive and the skin hangs in a flap, an attempt should be made to fix it by means of stitches of silk thread, or pins passed through the edges of the wound and across it, and thread, twine, or fine tow twisted round them, from heads to points, in figure of 8 fashion. In some cases, strips of cloth covered with glue may be applied across the wound to keep its sides together after the hair has been clipped or shaved off, and the wound itself covered with antiseptic lint.

In all cases, whenever possible, wounds should be treated with dry antiseptic dressings, and of these the best are probably chinosol and boric acid, each of which may be mixed, if need be, with a certain proportion of starch powder. The exclusion of the air from wounds is, when possible, always to be aimed at, and this can be effected most readily and the healing process best promoted by such dressings.

Rest of the parts is also essential to rapid healing of wounds, and this can be secured in various ways, but chiefly by means of bandaging, which also aids in maintaining apposition of the borders of the wound and the dressings applied to it; but care must be taken that the bandage is evenly applied, and that it will not impede the circulation to an inconvenient extent. To wounds of the lower part of the limbs these remarks more particularly apply; in this region, after obtaining apposition of the edges of the wound, dry dressing and careful bandaging are all important.

Punctured wounds, such as stabs from nails, sharp stakes, splinters of wood, pointed weapons, &c., are often the most dangerous to the animal, as they are also generally the most troublesome to deal with. Having ascertained that no portion of the substance which caused the wound remains therein, and having cleansed it as well as can be done, it should be dressed as in the case of a simple wound. Often, however, severe pain and great swelling occur soon after the punctured wound has been inflicted, and then it may be necessary to poultice or foment the part with warm water, and, after washing out the opening by means of a syringe, to get rid of putrid matter, to inject a solution of chinosol to destroy putrefactive germs. But unless constitutional symptoms become manifest, and there are indications that the wound is not doing well, it is the best course to keep to the dry dressings and interfere as little as possible with the injury.

Punctured wounds of the horse's feet produced either in shoeing, picking up stray nails on the roads, &c., are often followed by very serious consequences if not immediately attended to. The lameness soon becomes very great, and the animal evidently experiences intense pain. Sometimes much care is necessary in discovering the cause of this suffering. Nails picked up on the road are usually inserted alongside the frog, where they may be buried so deeply as to injure the flexor tendon of the foot and open the sheath through which it plays over the navicular bone. When, therefore, a horse falls suddenly lame in travelling on the road, the first thing to do is to lift the foot, and if a stone is not found wedged between the shoe and the sole, to examine carefully the spaces on each side and in the middle of the frog.

If a nail or other sharp body is found there, it should be removed before the horse is allowed to go further, and as soon as convenient the foot should be immersed for half an hour, or even an hour, in a bucket of warm water. Then it may be necessary to remove the horn from around the wound and dress this with Stockholm tar smeared on a pledget of tow, the dressing being retained by one or two pieces of thin wood or VETERINARY WORK] hoop-iron placed over it, their ends being pushed beneath the shoe. The horse should be kept as quietly as possible in a stall for a few days until it is presumed that the wound has perfectly healed, and there is no longer danger of complications.

If, however, the lameness and distress, instead of gradually subsiding, increase, it will be advisable to resort to warm water fomentations several times a day, to feed the horse on a light, laxative diet, and, if there is great pain in movement and in getting the heels to the ground, a shoe considerably raised at the end of the branches should be put on, as this will considerably relieve the weight-strain on the injured parts. Should the serious symptoms continue, the services of an expert had better be obtained.

If nothing be discovered elsewhere to account for the lameness, then the shoeing may be suspected, and faulty driving of the nails most probably will be found acting as the cause. Fortunately there is no difficulty in putting this suspicion to the test. The horse will have been recently shod, or will have had fresh nails driven into the shoe of the lame foot, and this, if the nail or nails have been driven into or too close to the living parts, will be higher in temperature than the other feet. Lift the foot and squeeze firmly and steadily around it, between the wall and sole, by means of a pair of pincers; when the injured part is compressed, the animal will demonstrate this by wincing considerably. The same manifestation will be made if the foot is placed on the ground and tapped around the neighbourhood of the nails with a hammer or the head of a hunting-crop, the opposite foot being held up meanwhile. The shoe must be taken off and the injury sought out by paring down towards the nail-holes, when, if matter has formed, this will escape on the puncture being opened; if this stage has not yet arrived, the exalted sensitiveness shown in paring and the evident traces of puncture will testify to the cause of lameness, which should be much diminished by relieving the pressure on the part in this way. Immersing the foot in hot water for half an hour, or keeping it in a poultice of mixed bran and linseed for twelve hours, should tend to abolish the pain. Then the cavity made in searching for the injury may be filled up with Stockholm tar (melted by moderate heat) and a piece of tow, and the shoe replaced, omitting, however, to insert nails at or very near to the puncture. When the foot has been nail-bound and the nail or nails press too much on the sensitive parts, which is sometimes even more troublesome than puncture. the same treatment must be adopted. It should here be remarked that long continued fomenting or poulticing of the horse's foot is nearly, if not always, to be avoided, as after the urgent pain has been relieved its employment is not only unnecessary, but, as a rule, detrimental. Antiseptics, and cleanliness and rest are the mainstays of a cure.

Thorns often inflict troublesome punctured wounds, especially when they are lodged in the joints or in the sheaths of tendons. Hunters are more particularly exposed to these punctures, which sometimes cause considerable lameness when the thorns remain in situ. The first business is, of course, to discover the thorns and remove them. Their presence is revealed by the sudden symptoms of pain which the horse exhibits when the hand is passed over them, and they not infrequently produce swelling of the part. The finger nails or a pair of forceps can be employed to remove them in their entirety, if possible but sometimes they are so deeply buried that a careful examination has to be made of the skin, and the hair clipped or shaved off before anything can be attempted for their removal. Softening the skin by means of warm fomentations or poultices will facilitate the operation and also lessen the pain and inflammation.

Contused and lacerated wounds are often more troublesome than, and quite as serious in results as, incised and punctured wounds, inasmuch as not only are tissues cut but they are also bruised and torn, and very often have foreign substances imbedded in them. Their gravity, as in the case of other wounds, depends very much upon their situation, extent, and the amount of bruising or laceration of tissues. A bruise is merely a form of contused wound in which the skin is intact, but the parts beneath it are more or less injured. This form frequently occurs 43 9 5 3 4 2 20 21 22 8 27 9 39 40 29 18 42 38 41 10 30 II 12 13 14 15 16 31 44 32 33 34 37 EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE. 25 23 24 I, Poll 2, Crest 3, Withers 4, Back 5, Loins; 6, Croup; 7, Angle of Hip or Haunch; 8, Quarter; 9, Thigh; 10, Leg (wrongly named the Thigh); 11, Point of Hock; 12, Hock; 13, Hind Shank, Cannon or Metatarsal bone; 14, Hind Fetlock: 15, Hind Pastern; 16, Hind Coronet; 17, Flank 18, Stifle (properly the knee); 19, Gaskin; 20, Forehead; 21, Face; 22, Nose; 23, Lower Jaw or Jowl; 24, Upper Lip; 25, Throat; 26, Neck; 27, Shoulder; 28, Point of Shoulder; 29, Elbow; 30, Fore-arm; 31, Knee (properly the Wrist or Carpus); 32, Fore Shank, Cadnon or Metacarpal bone; 33, Fore Fetlock; 34, Fore Pastern; 35, Fore Coronet; 36, Fore Hoof; 37, Heel; 38, Sheath 39, Body; 40, Chest; 41, Belly or Abdomen; 42, Breast or Counter; 43, Dock or Tail; 44, Chestnut; 45, Point of Hip or Buttock. from forcible contact with a blunt object, such as a stake, or pole, or a kick from another horse on the fleshy parts. There may be considerable pain and swelling, the latter being usually soft and containing fluid. To relieve the pain and diminish the swelling, the part should be bathed with hot water or with lotions that produce cold. It is not advisable to lance the swelling, so as to allow the contained fluid to escape, until it is seen whether the inflammation continues. If it does, then it may be surmised that matter has formed, and this must be drained away by making a very small incision through the skin at the most dependent part of the swelling. Contused and lacerated wounds occur most frequently on the limbs, through horses falling or stumbling, and the forelegs are most exposed to such injuries. "Broken knees" is the term commonly applied to injuries of this kind occurring to the front of the carpal, or, as they are wrongly designated, "knee" joints. The damage may be nothing more than a slight graze, merely abrading and bruising the skin, or it may pass through varying grades of injury to the most extensive and serious laceration, the knee joint itself being opened. When the skin is merely grazed, little more requires to be done than carefully and gently to remove any dirt and grit from it and bathe with warm water, afterwards dressing with a little chinosol ointment. If there be swelling and stiffness of the joint, the fomentation must be continued until these disappear. When the skin is cut and bleeding, the same treatment is to be adopted; but if the wound is clean it may be dressed with boric or chinosol powder and covered with a piece of lint and a bandage. If the wound is rather extensive and transverse, the horse should not be permitted to lie down until the healing process is well advanced. In some cases, after the wound has been well cleaned, it may be dressed with tincture of myrrh, and then a piece of lint on which Canada balsam has been spread laid over it, and over this a bandage may be placed. This dressing will often remain on the knees until the wound is healed.

When the wound is ragged and contused, and the tendons passing over it are probably lacerated, so that there is great danger of one or more of the joint capsules being opened, then all the skill and care of the expert will be required to repair the injury and preserve the horse's usefulness; therefore he should be called in early. In the meantime something may be done by the amateur.

After the wound has been freed from grit and all foreign matter by gentle washing with warm water, it should be dried with lint; then a wide piece of the same should be covered with a layer of the boric acid or chinosol and starch powder, and placed on the wound, this dressing being retained by a bandage. The leg should be made immovable by means of a starch bandage wrapped round it from above the knee down to the fetlock, and, as the horse must not be suffered to lie down until the wound is healed-which may occupy some weeks he should be supported in the standing position by means of a sling. The wound will require to be dressed in the course of a few days, and to permit of this being done without taking off the starch bandage, a hole may be made in this by a pair of sharp-pointed scissors immediately over the seat of injury. When the knee has been dressed, the dressing can be kept in place by an ordinary bandage. The treatment of irritative fever and other unfavourable symptoms ought to be left to the veterinary attendant. It must be remembered that poulticing and fomenting such wounds is most injurious, and that the best results are derived from the dry antiseptic treatment. A tendency to fever must be combated by laxative diet in the shape of mashes, and by small quantities of nitrate of potass in the water given to drink. The temperature of the feet of the other limbs must be watched after a few days, and especially of the opposite foot, as congestion and inflammation sometimes attack them, owing to the strain imposed on them from the continued standing. This, however, is not so likely to occur when the horse is slung, as the legs are then relieved of much of the weight of the body.

Wounds of other joints, such as the hock and fetlock, are to be treated in a similar manner, as are also those of sheaths of tendons. Dry antiseptic dressings, moderately firm bandaging, immobility of the limb, and keeping the horse quiet until the injury has been quite repaired, are the chief points to be remembered.

A sometimes severe and troublesome form of contused wound is that known as "over-reach."

This is usually produced in galloping, especially on heavy ground, and in jumping; it occurs most frequently in the hunting field and on the steeplechase course. The parts injured are the back of the leg or heels of the fore feet, and the damage is inflicted by the toe of the shoes of the hind feet. The extent of the damage varies from mere laceration of skin to exposure of the posterior surface of the back tendon, or even tearing of the tendon itself or of the lateral cartilages [VETERINARY WORK of the foot at the heels, and sometimes involves the coronary frogband at this part. When an accident of this kind happens in the field, all dirt should be removed by washing, and a temporary bandage-such as that afforded by a handkerchief-applied until the injury can be properly attended to. Mention of a temporary bandage calls to mind the great benefit that is often derived from a linen bandage, a piece of lint, and a few pins wherewith to close skin wounds; these can be easily carried by the horseman, as they are light and occupy little space, and may be of great service in an emergency, and even in the case of an accident to man. When the "over-reach" can be properly dressed, it should be again well cleansed, and it may be necessary to remove, by means of sharp scissors, any shreds of tissue hanging from the wound.

This should then be dressed with chinosol or boracic acid powder, a piece of lint placed over it, and a bandage evenly applied around the leg.

When the heel is the seat of injury and there is evidence of much bruising, it is often advantageous to thin the hoof immediately below it, in order to relieve the tension from subsequent swelling of the bruised tissues. The wound should be dressed with the dry antiseptic powder every second or third day, and no washing, fomentation, or poulticing ought to be allowed. The horse should be rested and have light diet. With regard to the prevention of this accident, it is to be remarked that the injury is inflicted by the back lower edge of the toe of the hind shoe, and that the hind shoes of all horses that have to jump or gallop should be straight across at this part-"square-toed shoes," which should also be convex on the ground surface and have a clip at each side. The hoof may be allowed to project slightly beyond the shoe at the toe, but it ought to be well rounded.

Another kind of contused wound is that produced at the top of one foot by the opposite foot. or the foot of another horse, treading on it, and known as a "tread." The wound may be slight or severe, its character not being always ascertainable at first, so that it should not be neglected even when apparently trivial. If the wound is lacerated and there are loose shreds, these must be removed by sharp scissors. Then the part must be freed from dirt. washed clean, and dressed with antiseptic powder in the manner already described. keeping the part always dry. If the portion of hoof immediately in contact with the wound becomes detached, it should be cut away by the shoer's knife.

A very serious form of lacerated wound is that which is sometimes met with in the hunting field, when a horse becomes "staked." i.e., has the wall of the abdomen or chest or the muscles inside the thigh torn by a stake while jumping.

It is usually the lower part of the belly which suffers from staking, and the tear is not infrequently so wide and deep that the abdominal cavity is opened, so that the intestines escape therefrom and may descend even to the ground.

When the muscles only are wounded, all that can be done is to cleanse the wound and cover it up with handkerchiefs, bandages, or anything of the kind conveniently to hand, until it can be properly attended to. Wounds of the abdomen with protrusion of the intestines, though formidable looking, are not always hopeless if the bowel is not torn or severely bruised. As a temporary measure at the time of the accident, the intestine should be returned to the abdominal cavity if possible, the manipulation in effecting this being very carefullv conducted; then a long bandage should be made by tying several handkerchiefs together; this is placed on the wound and tied over the VETERINARY WORK] back, being supported with the thong of a whip.

If the intestines cannot be returned without the risk of injuring them, they had better be let alone and kept suspended in the bandage until an operation can be conveniently undertaken. The horse can generally be walked for some distance after being bandaged. The operation consists in throwing down the horse gently, taking great care of the intestines, placing the animal on his back, after having administered chloroform to him, returning the bowel, and passing sutures, or, better, a steel pin or pins through the lips of the wound and passing tow round the ends of them in figure of 8 fashion. The wound should be treated antiseptically during and after the operation. A wide bandage encircling the body should include the wound. The diet ought to be light and laxative.

Hæmorrhage. The most serious accompaniment of wounds of all kinds is hæmorrhage, and this cannot always be easily checked or controlled, especially when the blood proceeds from arteries.

This is known by the bright red hue of the blood and by its flowing in pulsating jets, whereas blood from the veins is of a purplish colour and comes away in an even flow. Pressure is the most ready means of stopping bleeding, though if this be mere oozing of the blood in small quantity, cold or somewhat hot water will answer the purpose. If the bleeding occurs in the limb, a handkerchief dipped in cold water and applied to the part, being kept there by another handkerchief tied over it and around the leg, may succeed in checking the flow, if it does not altogether suppress it. When the bleeding proceeds from a deep, narrow wound, it may be checked for a short time, until other measures can be taken, by passing the finger down into the opening and making pressure on the injured blood vessel, or a handkerchief may be thrust deeply and firmly into it, so as to staunch the flow. Should these measures prove unsuccessful, the garrot tourniquet can be adopted. This is readily made by folding a handkerchief in the longest direction, tying it quite loosely around the limb, between the wound and the body, and then tightening it to the required extent, i.e., until the bleeding stops, by means of a hunting-crop or a stick passed through this loop and twisted round. If the horse has to travel any distance, which should not be far, with this tourniquet in position, the hunting-crop or stick may be tied to the leg by means of another handkerchief round one end. If a pad, made by a handkerchief folded into a lump or by a round, smooth stone, is placed over the large artery of the limb and included in the tourniquet, the latter need not be so severely twisted. At any rate, the tourniquet is a very temporary arrangement, and must not be kept on the limb any longer than is necessary to obtain expert assistance in order to tie the bleeding vessel.

It is astonishing how in these emergencies a little knowledge, self-possession, and commonsense will avert serious, if not fatal, consequences. Contusions. - Contusions are frequent in the horse, and are caused in a variety of wavs. One kind has been alluded to. When the skin is not broken, applications of cold water or astringent lotions are the most convenient, and generally the most effective treatment. What is termed "sore back" is usually a contusion of the skin produced by severe and unequal pressure of the saddle in some particular part of the back. The saddle may have been badly constructed or fitted, the stuffing lumpy, the lining hard and dirty, the weight on the back long continued or unsteady, or the saddle removed too soon after a long journey, especially in hot weather. In some cases sore back is doubtless produced by the manner in which the saddle is put on-placing it back and then pulling it forward against the hair into its proper seat, instead of putting it on forwards and then moving it backwards in the direction of the hair. Prevention, it need scarcely be said, is most important, for a sore back may imply inability to carry the rider, or even the saddle, for some days.

When there is danger of sore back from longcontinued pressure, it is an excellent plan, when the rider dismounts, to leave the saddle on the back for some time, to allow the skin to become cool and the blood circulation in it to regain its normal condition; if the weight has been great and the girths are somewhat loose, it is even advisable to tighten these to some degree after the rider has left the saddle. If, unfortunately, the skin becomes tender and puffy, applications of cold water, lead lotion, or common salt dissolved in water must be resorted to at once. If the skin is abraded, then astringent lotion is needed; and there is nothing more effective nor handier than dressing the part with ordinary writing ink, as the iron and gallic acid in it are eminently astringent. It is a good plan, when the weather is hot and the journeys long, to sponge over the back with a solution of alum, oak bark, or sulphate of iron, in order to render the skin hard and less sensitive and vascular. If the journey must be prolonged and the horse ridden, then the part of the saddle that impinges on the bruised place must be eased by removing the stuffing from it.

Fractures. Of all the domesticated animals the horse is the most exposed to fractures of the bones. This exceptional liability might be predicted when the nature of the services he is compelled to render is taken into account. And of all the bones of the body the most frequently broken are those of the limbs, especially those below the knee and hock.

Fractures are usually divided into five kinds:- (I) simple, (2) compound, (3) comminuted, (4) compound comminuted, (5) impacted.

The simple fracture is that in which the bone is broken into two pieces, but the skin remains whole; in the compound fracture the bone is broken, and there is a wound in the soft tissues and the skin covering the fracture through which the ends of the bones may protrude. In the comminuted fracture the bone is broken up into a number of pieces; and in the compound comminuted fracture, in addition to this break up of the bone, an external wound exists which leads to it or through which the splinters may project; while in the impacted fracture one end of the broken bone is wedged into the other end. In the horse, fractured bones are always serious, but especially when those of the limbs are concerned.

This is not because broken bones are less ready to become united in the horse than in other animals. indeed, fractured bones are more rapidly repaired in favourable cases in this animal than they perhaps are in mankind; but it is because of the difficulty in keeping the parts sufficiently at rest to ensure continued apposition of the fractured portions and no interruption of the healing process. This is particularly the case in the limb bones, which have to sustain weight; a favourable position of the animal cannot be obtained, the only one usually secured being the standing one. with the weight of the body of the horse sustained more or less by a sling passed under it and suspended by ropes to beams or poles.

Fractures of the limb bones and the vertebræ are generally looked upon as incurable, and the animal is accordingly destroyed. Fractures of the vertebræ may unhesitatingly be pronounced as hopeless when they are diagnosed, and the horse should be mercifully slaughtered. The same conclusion unfortunately has to be arrived at in nearly all cases of compound, comminuted, and impacted fractures, especially of the leg bones; for even under the most favourable conditions, when the broken pieces of bone can be brought into their proper place and kept there until firmly united and the wound healed, the horse may remain a cripple afterwards, and be of little or no use except for breeding purposes, if a stallion or a mare. The difficulty of maintaining the broken bones in place, the complications which are likely to occur during the treatment, and the expense incurred, no less than the great uncertainty of even an imperfect cure, all militate against keeping the animal alive. But every case of fracture must not be condemned as hopeless, as is too often done in those of the leg bones, for simple, and even compound, fractures have been successfully treated, and the horses have subsequently performed good service.

Much depends on the situation and nature of the fracture, as well as on the health and temper of the horse, and also on the skill of the expert and the patience and humanity of the owner.

Fractures generally occur out of doors, though they sometimes happen in the stable, and are produced by kicks from other horses, by falls in Jumping, by pulling up short while galloping, by forcible impact of hard bodies against the bones, &c. A fracture may occur without any marked symptoms except, perhaps, the evidence of pain on manipulating the parts, and lameness if the limb bones are involved. Much will depend upon the situation and the character of the injury.

When the bone is not concealed too deeply by thick masses of muscle, crepitation, or grating on each other of the broken pieces, may be felt, and even heard, on moving the limb; when there is displacement, the limb may be shortened, more or less pendulous, and capable of being moved in directions which it could not be made to do were there no fracture. In other cases the existence of fracture is at once apparent without manipulation being necessary, as when the angle of the haunch is broken and displaced-an accident not very uncommon, and usually brought about by this part being struck against the side of a door in entering or leaving a stable or loosebox. Of course, if the fracture is compound or comminuted, or both combined, the diagnosis is generally rendered easier. Sometimes, when the bone is only cracked, there may be lameness for a day or two and nothing serious suspected-the animal may even be exercised or worked, when all at once displacement occurs and then the leg is really broken. Such cases are far from unusual; the fracture generally occurs in the hind limb, the leg bone (tibia), between the stifle and hock, often erroneously designated the thigh bone, being nearly always the one that offers this peculiarity. The cause of fracture here is nearly always a kick from another horse, the injury being inflicted inside the leg a short distance above the hock, where the bone is only covered by the skin. There may be great lameness immediately after the kick, but this soon passes off, and then there is nothing more evident than the wound in the skin until, a few days afterwards, the horse is found in the morning with a broken leg and has to be destroyed. The explanation for this somewhat extraordinary occurrence lies in the fact that the bone-which is one of great solidity and strength is cracked or starred into perhaps a number of pieces, but there is no displacement of these; this is prevented by the dense resisting membrane covering the bone (the periosteum), until the exudation that is thrown out preparatory to cementing the fractured surfaces separates these from each other and the containing membrane so far that the horse, in lying down [VETERINARY WORK or getting up, throws so much strain upon the leg that complete separation takes place, and the animal is found with the limb dangling in so peculiar a manner that the experienced eye can at once perceive what has happened.

In troop stables this accident most frequently occurs, though it also happens in the field; and so apprehensive was I of complete fracture ensuing that, for many years, when a horse received a kick on this part, I immediately had him put in a sling and kept as quiet as possible until I could assure myself either that no fracture had taken place or that there had been one, and that union was so far accomplished that there was no reason to fear displacement; though the horse was usually kept in the sling until he could be safely allowed to lie down. The evidence that there had been fracture was found in the great majority of cases, and consisted in the presence of a hard enlargement (callus) where the blow had been given. As has been mentioned, and for the reasons adduced, many cases of fracture in the horse are not considered suitable for treatment; among these there are often cases which would, if occurring in man, be undertaken with every prospect of a good recovery. Therefore it is that treatment for fracture in the horse is seldom attempted, and especially when the bones are those of the limbs, even when the fracture is of the simple kind. So that, in arriving at a decision as to whether the attempt should be made, several considerations must be kept in view, among which are the nature and situation of the fracture, the value of the animal, the conveniences for and the probable cost of treatment, whether he is likely to be quite free from lameness or other infirmity which will diminish his usefulness afterwards, and whether if he, if a stallion (or she, if a mare), may not be useful at the stud should the cure not be complete.

Fracture of the vertebræ, whether of the neck, body, or loins, is, it may be said, always fatal.

Death may be instantaneous, as when the neck vertebræ are fractured near the head, or death may not ensue for some days when the back is broken. There is generally no difficulty in diagnosing "broken back," an accident which occurs more frequently in the field than in the stable. The horse is down and cannot rise, for he has no power over his hind limbs, though this inability might also be due to a bad sprain of the muscles or ligaments of the loins. But in broken back, in addition to immobility of the hind extremities, there is also loss of sensation in them; so that when they are pinched or pricked with a pin the horse does not show any sign of pain, which he would do if the back were merely sprained. As broken back is incurable, the animal should be killed to obviate needless suffering.

With regard to killing horses which have met with very serious accidents, the means are not always at hand for doing so, and it not infrequently happens that a considerable time must elapse before a knacker, a gun, or a pistol can be procured when the mishap has occurred in the field; and even when a firearm and ammunition have been obtained, it is not every one who knows how to shoot a horse dead instantaneously. The brain must be perforated if this is to be effected, and the best part of the head to aim at is the middle of the forehead, about three inches above the line of the eyes, where there is usually a curl in the hair. The firearm should be held close to the head, and the bullet or shot directed towards the top of the neck, so as to reach the base of the brain-death is then instantaneous.

But shooting cannot always be carried out, and some other plan must be resorted to. If a blacksmith's forge is near, a sledge hammer and a VETERINARY WORK] pointed punch may be borrowed, and the latter instrument driven deeply into the brain, at the spot and in the direction indicated above, by a smart blow from the hammer. Death is then as prompt as by shooting, if the operation is properly performed. Or the carotid artery may be exposed by making an incision with a pocket knife in the side of the neck about midway between the head and chest, in the furrow immediately above the windpipe, and pushing the forefinger inwards until it meets the artery, which is distinguished by its strong pulsations; the vessel is then drawn to the surface by the finger being hooked round it, and a slit an inch or two long made in its wall. On allowing the vessel to go back the blood gushes out in a full stream, and death-almost painless-rapidly ensues. But this sanguinary business is not pleasant to witness, and I have on several occasions, when driven to my wits' end to find a ready way to kill a horse, when there was nothing with which to do it except a knife, thrown off my belt and tunic, rolled up my shirt sleeve, and introduced my hand, armed with an open pocket knife, well into the rectum, where, turning the point of the blade upwards and pushing it towards the loins, I made strong cut across, and in this way divided the posterior aorta or one of its divergent branches.

The horse was dead in a few seconds without a drop of blood escaping externally, and without anybody being cognisant as to how death was caused. as a When fractures of the limbs occur on the road as or in the field, and it is decided not to destroy the animals on the spot, but to give them a chance for their lives, great care must be taken, when moving them to some suitable habitation, that the injury is not made greater by the movement.

To prevent a simple from becoming a compound fracture, the broken bone should be "set" perfectly as may be possible under the circumstances-i.e., the broken portions brought into their natural position, and kept there by any simple means until better can be devised. A bandage or handkerchief may be tied round it, and, if thought necessary, splints of wood cut from a paling, or stout branches of trees or twigs sufficiently long to extend some distance above and below the fracture, may be employed; hunting-crops sometimes answer very well in emergency. Some soft material, such as reeds, grass, hay, or moss, should be laid around the limb on the bandage, so as to make the surface as level and even as possible; on this the splints are to be placed, inside and outside the limb, and their ends kept fixed by handkerchiefs tied around them. an When this has been done, an attempt must be made to get the horse to his stable or some other convenient shelter where he can remain until he is well. If a horse-ambulance cart can be procured, this difficulty is at once solved; but such a useful convevance is rarely available in the country, and not always even in towns. Therefore the animal must travel on his own legs, only three of which can be used for this purpose.

If the damaged limb is a fore one, with time and patience a considerable distance may be travelled, but frequent short halts are needed. When it is a hind limb that is disabled, progression is much more difficult, and a longer time and more frequent rests are required to travel the same distance. In these cases travelling is quicker and the crippled horse is much relieved if a portion of his weight can be borne on a narrow plank placed beneath his chest, each end of which is carried by one or two men; or each end of a sack may be tied securely to a stout piece of wood, and on this the chest may rest, while men VOL. IV at the sides of the horse partly carry him by means of the sticks.

Arrived at his destination, the horse must be slung, and in default of the proper gear a very useful sling may be made by nailing, or strongly sewing, each end of an ordinary sack to a short pole five or six feet long. This sling is placed beneath the body, and secured at the ends of the poles by ropes passed over beams in the roof.

The shafts of a cart or wagon, firmly propped up, have sometimes been successfully employed to sling a horse. It must be remembered that the lame horse should not be lifted off his feet by the sling; this should just be in contact with his chest when he is fully standing up, so that when he seeks to rest he simply bends his knees and hocks and allows his weight to fall on the sling.

The greatest care should be taken that everything is sufficiently strong to sustain the weight, as great damage is often done when the sling suddenly gives way while the horse rests on it.

The proper bandaging of the fracture can now be carried out, and this demands some skill.

The temporary bandage and splints having been removed, a more careful examination of the limb may be made, but the broken bone should be handled as little as possible, if the parts are in their proper place. If there is no external wound, a thick layer of cotton-wool may be placed around the damaged part of the limb, and over that a linen bandage, evenly wrapped and moderately tight. Then a starch bandage may be placed upon this, and, if need be, splints of wood or iron, the object being completely to immobilise the limb.

To allay the pain, lead lotion and laudanum may be poured between the skin and the upper part of the inner bandage, and if the inflammation runs high, cold water may be applied by a sponge or a hose frequently during the day.

This treatment is more particularly applicable to fractures of the leg bones, but it must be remarked that little can be done in the way of "setting" such bones as the arm bone, the humerus or bone between the shoulder-blade and bone of the fore-arm; nor yet the thigh bone or femur (that between the hip joint and stifle), as these are too much surrounded by masses of muscle.

Even the bone of the fore-arm, the radius, is difficult to set and fix, especially when the fracture is oblique; and the leg bone of the hind limb, the tibia (extending from the stifle to the hock), is still more troublesome, the broken ends of the bone being very rarely brought together and kept so, if they are displaced. The same may be said of fracture of the bones of the pelvis, one of which, the ilium, is much exposed to this accident, especially at its anterior part, the point of the quarter or hip. This part, as has already been mentioned, is very liable to fracture when horses are passing through doorways, and when a considerable piece has been knocked off and displaced the animals are said to be "down in the hip." For such cases scarcely anything more can be done than to apply warm water fomentations to the part, sling the horse, and keep him as quiet as possible. Fracture of the hip joint generally occurs through a fall in the stall or on a hard road, and is not always easily diagnosed.

It may be regarded as incurable.

The bones of the face are sometimes fractured by kicks from other horses, and displacement is usually the result. If this displacement gives the horse an unsightly appearance, or interferes with the breathing, the depressed bone or bones can be raised by an operative procedure that can best be carried out by the surgeon. In these cases there is often profuse hæmorrhage from one or both nostrils to check which plugging cannot be resorted to, as in man, because the horse breathes Y only through his nostrils; so that little more can be done than apply cold water to the face and it up the nose.

The shank bones-large metacarpal or large metatarsal bones-if not much splintered, and provided the fractured ends can be brought totogether and kept so, may, in many cases, be successfully repaired, if properly set and bandaged. The pastern bones are often fractured, more particularly the smaller or lower one; the accident generally occurs in jumping at a fast pace or in pulling up sharp when galloping; it may also happen in slipping on ice or soft ground.

The bone may be merely split vertically or obliquely, or it may be broken up into a number of pieces. Diagnosis is usually easy; there is great lameness and intense pain, especially when handling the damaged pastern, and, if the fracture is comminuted, the unusual mobility of the part, together with the crepitus, or grating of the fragments on each other, should leave no doubt as to what has happened. When the bone is merely split, the only evidence is the lameness, pain on handling the part, and probably some swelling. Recovery from split and fractured pasterns is not by any means rare, and if the horse is a valuable one, and the bone not much broken and displaced, an attempt at cure may be made with a reasonable hope of success. The treatment has already been suggested.

The foot bone-os pedis is sometimes fractured, especially that of the fore-foot, and in a similar manner to the bones of the pasterns Unfortunately, owing to its being completely buried within the hoof, the existence of this accident can only be inferred from the intense lameness and the great heat of the foot, and the absence of signs of fracture elsewhere in the limb. The treatment is simple enough, and consists chiefly in keeping the horse quiet in the sling, and resorting to continuous irrigation of the foot with cold water.

Dislocations. The dislocation of bones which enter into the formation of joints is not a very common occurrence, though one may be surprised that, considering the great strain often imposed on many of the joints, especially those of the limbs and back, it is not more frequent. The most common form of dislocation is that of the stifle or patella, which usually happens in young or debilitated animals, and is due almost entirely to weakness or relaxation of the ligaments that attach the patella to the front of the thigh and leg bones. This dislocation is often only partial, and therefore not so serious, for it can generally be rectified without any manipulation.

So persistent is it in some horses that at every few steps the animal takes when in motion the patella slips off to the outside of the joint, momentarily checking the extension of the leg, and slips on again as readily, this reduction being often accompanied by a dull clicking sound. Such partial dislocation may occur with both patellæ at the same time. Complete dislocation is usually witnessed in older horses, and is more serious, as the patella has not a tendency to return to its place without manual assistance.

The signs of dislocation of the patella are very marked and, to the experienced horseman, unmistakable, but those who see a case for the first time are inclined to look upon it as a very grave condition-nothing less than a broken leg in one case which I was called upon to see. The limb is rigidly fixed and thrust backward, the fetlock being bent forward until the front of the hoof nearly touches the ground, and no effort of the animal can bring it forward; so that in walking the leg is dragged after the body in the same rigid fashion, none of its joints being moved. [VETERINARY WORK The animal does not give evidence of suffering from pain, unless compelled to walk quickly, which is very difficult and fatiguing. the bone does not return to its place spontaneously, In the simpler form of patellar dislocation, if drawing the leg forward and at the same time inward, will make it resume its normal position pushing the bone from the outside forward and condition of the stifle ligaments (which usually with a smart jerking noise. To cure this relaxed tied up in a stall for a week or so, and the disappears with age), the animal should be kept stifle blistered in front and on each side. tion is not so easy. In order to draw the hind When the dislocation is more complete, reducround the pastern and brought towards the leg sufficiently forward, a rope must be passed being drawn steadily, will carry the leg in advance, shoulder or placed around the neck; this rope on until the stifle joint is sufficiently straightened to allow of the patella being restored to its natural position by pushing it from behind forwards.

This manœuvre rarely fails, at least it has always been successful with me; but if the attempt does that have large muscular development, then, in not succeed, which is just possible with horses order to induce muscular relaxation, the animal should be thrown down and chloroform administered. When reduction has been effected-and flamed and painful-cooling lotions should be this ought not to be delayed if the joint is inapplied, after which it may be advisable to resort to blistering, and allow two or three weeks' rest. pastern joints have been recorded, but these are Dislocations of the shoulder-joint, fetlock, and too serious for the amateur to deal with unless he can reduce them easily without doing any damage. The smaller joints he may be able to put right by getting the dislocated bones in place arrives. Some of these dislocations have made and keeping the limb bandaged until the expert a good recovery. The vertebræ of the neck are sometimes partially dislocated through falls in being "cast" in the stable. The dislocation is the hunting field, but more particularly from outward, to the right or left side, and several of the bones may be involved. The neck is curved to one side, and this gives the horse a curious appearance. To straighten the neck again is nearly always a serious task, and takes a considerable time, if some days have elapsed before treatment is adopted. A splint apparatus or cradle has to be placed on the neck, and pressure applied on the convex side. This pressure must be exercised continuously, and gradually increased until the neck is straight; but the cradle must be worn gained their normal condition. some time afterwards until the ligaments have The Detection of Lameness in Horses.- Among the many things which the intelligent horseman ought to know is, not only when a horse is in good health and condition or when it is sick or unfit for work, but also when it is lame and, if possible, where it is lame, as well as the cause of the lameness. This is indeed expecting a great deal from him, and in truth there are not many amateur horsemen who are privileged to possess this knowledge to such an extent as to meet every requirement; but the more he knows the more likely is he to keep his horses in health, to avoid being imposed upon or misleading others, and to be in a position to apply the stitch in time when anything is amiss and expert assistance not imme diately available. These remarks are more particularly applicable to cases of lameness, as the ability to distinguish unrhythmical from rhythmical movement of the limbs is often of great moment to those who employ horses, and, in only a less degree, is the faculty of being able to fix VETERINARY WORK] upon the ailing leg or legs, and to detect the seat and cause of imperfect movement.

It is more important for the rider to know when a horse is lame than to be absolutely certain as to the part affected or the cause, for an expert can generally be trusted to discover this; whereas, if an animal suddenly becomes cripple and continues to be worked without this being perceived, great, and sometimes even irreparable, mischief may be the result.

Lameness has been defined as the manifestation, in the act of progression, and by one or more of the limbs, of pain or weakness, inability or impediment in movement. Though pain is usually a cause of lameness, yet a horse may manifest irregular or halting movement of the limbs during motion without experiencing pain. There may be stiffness of a joint or malformation of a limb impeding movement, and yet no evidence present of any pain being suffered. For instance, the nervous affection of the limbs popularly known as "stringhalt" is a kind of lameness, and yet there is no sign that it is in any way productive of pain. It is most important to remember this, as very often people who are not acquainted with horses or their diseases, imagine that an animal must be suffering if they see it limp or move unevenly, and very often unfortunate drivers or owners of horses are unjustly punished for cruelty to them because of this mistake-some deformity of a limb preventing its being used as freely as the other legs, but causing no more pain than a club-foot or a stiff knee does in man.

Lameness may be only temporary, and be due to local causes, without disease being present. A wound, or bruise of the leg or foot, or even a stone lodged between the shoe and sole or about the frog, may induce limping; or lameness may be permanent from chronic disease, or the effect of such disease. Even weakness of muscle may cause lameness in one or more limbs, and the opposite of this condition, such as cramp of the muscles, will produce the same result, as will also partial or complete dislocation of a jointthat of the stifle, for example-in which there is complete inability to draw the hind leg forward.

In some cases lameness is so marked that the veriest tiro can scarcely fail to notice it, especially if only one limb is involved, and to determine in which leg it is. In other instances, however, it is so slight that it may escape casual observation, and even among experts it may chance to be of such a peculiar or trifling character that there will not only be a diversity of opinion as to the limb affected, but whether the horse is at all lame.

Therefore it is that a horse will be passed as sound by some experts, and pronounced lame by others, though these again may differ not only as to the seat of lameness, but even as to the lame leg.

Skill in the detection of lameness would almost appear to be a special faculty in some people.

Doubtless long experience and close observation among lame horses will tend to render this detection easier and more certain, but there are people whom no amount of practice will thoroughly teach, and whose eyesight and hearing do not enable them to detect if a horse is lame or on which leg it limps. Many even of those who have successfully passed through the veterinary schools have had their professional reputation seriously marred in the early days of their career through failing to detect lameness, or mistaking the limb, the location of the ailment, or the cause. Other men, again, are quick at detecting lameness, and not only in deciding on the lame leg, but in fixing upon the part where the cause of the lameness exists; some of these men can do this in certain cases before the horse has moved many yards.

Of course nothing but practice and careful observation can ensure the acquirement of this knowledge, but a few simple directions may render it easier of attainment.

Lameness is generally detected when the horse is in movement, this being either walking or trotting, or both, though it is generally necessary to make the animal trot in every case, unless the lameness is so marked, or progression causes so much pain, that the faster pace can be dispensed with.

But even when the horse is at rest the existence of lameness may in some cases be suspected from the attitude of the animal and the position of the limb or limbs. One or more of these, if pain is present in them, may be placed forward, backward, or outward, and they may be extended or flexed. Indeed, to those who understand the anatomy of the limbs and the physiology of movement, the attitude of the horse and the position of the legs when at rest are in many cases of great diagnostic value. For it is to be observed that a limb in which there is pain is "rested"that is, relieved from the animal's weight-as much as possible, and the manner in which this relief is effected is an indication not only as to the limb involved, but also, in numerous instances, of the seat of pain or infirmity.

For example, when a horse is experiencing pain in a fore or hind foot, the limb is usually extended forward. If it is in the back part of the fore foot, this "pointing," as it is termed, will be accompanied by raising of the heels from the ground, the symptom so characteristic in cases of corn and navicular diseases; but if the pain is in the front part of the foot, then the heels are placed on the ground more firmly than usual and the toe is relieved as much as possible, this attitude being very characteristic of laminitis. Lameness from injury or disease in the knee or its vicinity is generally marked by the horse standing with that joint bent forward, but when the elbow is the cause of lameness the knees will also be bent in the same direction, but the fore arm is carried forward and the foot backward. When the shoulder is the seat of pain the knee and foot are generally in the same position as in elbow lameness, but the entire limb droops in a very significant manner.

When the pain in a limb is severe, there is frequent, if not incessant, movement of it; it is continually being raised from and gently placed on the ground, and if it be a fore limb the litter may be pawed back by it, while the animal's countenance and other signs will betray the agony experienced. Should the lameness be in a hind limb, there are similar indications of great value, and here "knuckling over "of the fetlock is more marked in many of the lamenesses of the hind than of the fore leg. In the majority of these cases the lame leg is advanced, and especially if the pain is below the hock; if the foot is rested on the toe, it generally indicates pain in the back part of the limb, tendons, ligaments or heels, while a bent hock is usually seen in disease or injury of that joint. Pain in the hip is manifested by an apparent shortening and resting of the entire limb; stifle trouble is indicated by a peculiar straightening of the leg, which can be drawn backward, but cannot so readily be carried forward. When the pain is in both hind feet, the attitude is very noteworthy; these are brought forward under the body, and they are lifted alternately in an evidently uncomfortable manner, the movement being often accompanied by groaning, hurried breathing, perspiration, and other signs of suffering, while the forelegs are carried back in order to sustain a greater share of weight-bearing. In some cases of this description it has been observed Y2 that the pain in the hind feet prevents urination being properly performed. The animal cannot extend itself as it must do in that act, though it may raise the tail and make efforts to carry the hind legs back, but the horse quickly resumes its former attitude with a groan, and agonisingly raises the feet in a spasmodic manner. This inability to extend has not infrequently led the attendants to imagine that the urinary organs were at fault.

The position the lame horse assumes when stationary is that in which the infirm or injured parts find most relief, and this indication is of the greatest service in arriving at a knowledge of the cause when the cripple limb has been detected. Sometimes it is necessary slightly to move, or attempt to move, the horse in order to accentuate the evidence as to the degree and nature of the ailment. In laminitis, for instance, though the attitude is very striking and characteristic when the animal is not disturbed, it is more particularly significant when an attempt is made to make him move a step backward or forward. If the inflammation is at all severe, it is almost impossible to compel the horse to lift the feet from the ground; the body may sway to and fro, but the feet remain fixed as if rooted in the earth, the weight being thrown altogether on the heels, where the inflammation is not so severe.

It is the same with some other forms of lameness, the attitude in the stable often furnishing a valuable guide in ascertaining the leg that is at fault, and even the nature of the damage. It is therefore very necessary to see the horse when at rest in the stable, and the attitude should be observed for a few minutes, and the horse then moved backward and forward, as well as sideways in the stall. For it is to be remarked that horses affected with certain infirmities of the limbs will exhibit symptoms of lameness in the stable which they quickly lose when exercised out of doors; but when they return and stand still again for a short time, they limp even more than before.

Of course the converse is also true of other kinds of lameness, which may appear to be absent when the horse is in the stable, but become very apparent during movement.

An examination of the limb by eye and hand after movement will in all probability confirm and complete the information acquired by observing the horse during progression. It must be stated, however, that a knowledge of the anatomy of the limbs is of great value in the diagnosis of lameness. It is always advisable to have slight cases of lameness, about which there is any doubt, tested at a trot upon hard ground; a horse which will then show inequality in movement may go apparently sound on a soft surface.

A lame horse in walking or trotting always endeavours to avoid increasing the pain by throwing as little weight as possible on the affected limb. Therefore, if a fore leg is amiss, when the foot comes to the ground the head is thrown upwards; if it be a hind leg, the quarter of that side is raised when the weight falls on it. It is wrong to say that a horse "drops" on the lame leg. Lamenesses are best detected when standing behind or before the animals in motion; in front of them if the fore limbs are to be observed, behind them if the hind ones are to be scrutinised.

Then, having ascertained the lame leg, careful observation of the manner in which the leg is moved, the observer standing on that side, will give an idea as to the region where the cause of lameness is located, and a manual examination will generally complete the diagnosis.

We will now briefly take notice of the accidents and diseases which occasion lameness, in addition [VETERINARY WORK to those already mentioned incidentally when dealing with wounds and fractures.

Splints are sometimes a cause of lameness, though not so often as is supposed. They are usually looked for on the front limbs (they are very rarely seen on the hind), between the knee and the fetlock and on the inner side of the leg, so that in standing in front of a horse, if a splint is present and of a considerable size, it is at once evident. In exceptional cases, chiefly those in which there is malposition of the limb-the elbow inclining inwards and the toe of the hoof outwards-the splint is observed on the outside of the leg. Splint is really a bony tumour, nearly always formed between the shank bone and the small bone attached to it on the outside and inside -the so-called "splint bone"-which generally unites them immovably together, whereas in early life these bones are only held together by a kind of ligamentous substance. When the horse is worked on hard ground and shod with iron shoes, and especially if he carries weight on his back, the splint bone, from its position on the inner side of the leg and closer relationship to the knee bones, has to bear a larger share of the weight and concussion from the outer one. The ligamentous connection with the shank bone is strained, inflammation is set up in this, and in the end bony matter is thrown out between the two bones, and often to a considerable amount on the shank bone in addition, constituting the tumour.

People possessed of the evolution craze have attempted to explain this pathological process as a natural tendency towards unification of the three bones quite a normal transition. But it is forgotten that splint usually appears only on one side of the limb that which is most under the body, and therefore has to sustain most weight; that it occurs, it might be said, always on the fore limbs-those which sustain most weight--- and is indeed exceedingly rare on the hind limbs; and that every horse does not have splints, those which are unshod and employed on soft ground rarely having them.

When the inflammation is only slight it causes little lameness, but in proportion to its severity the movement of the limb is impaired and the lameness increased. At first there may be no perceptible enlargement to account for the great lameness, but generally, in a short time, a gradually increasing and rather hard swelling is perceived, and this is hot and painful on manipulation. These signs, and the fact that young horses are most liable to splints, as well as the knowledge that the lameness is least noticeable at a walking pace and most marked in trotting, especially on hard ground, and that it increases in intensity as movement is continued, are distinctive. The severity of the lameness nearly always depends upon the situation, not so much on the size of the tumour, and upon the extent of bone implicated. When once fully formed, if the tumour does not interfere with the movement of the knee or with ligaments or tendons, the lameness disappears and there is no further trouble. But in exceptional cases splints are a source of inconvenience, even if they do not cause pain and interfere with the horse's action.

The treatment for splint must largely depend upon whether it causes lameness, and also whether, from its size, it is likely to prove an eyesore. If it is small and does not make the horse lame, there is little need to meddle with it; and if it is recent, all that requires to be done is to take off the shoes and allow exercise on soft ground, keeping the animal standing while in the stable on soft bedding, such as moss litter. If the lameness is very marked and it is desired to check the inflammation, thereby preventing the VETERINARY WORK] tumour from growing, acetate of lead lotion applied to the part by means of two or three folds of lint tied round it and kept constantly moist, will prepare the inflamed part for the application of a blister. After a few days of the lead lotion, a small portion of biniodide of mercury ointment should be rubbed into the skin of the affected part; the blister may be repeated two or three times, at intervals of about a week. This is as much as the amateur can venture to do, for though in extreme cases it may be advisable to cut into the swelling and so divide the dense membrane covering it, thereby relieving the tension, yet the operation is almost too delicate for an unskilled person. 66 An inflammation of the shank or cannon bones of the fore legs, rarely the hind ones, similar to that of splints, and also occurring in young horses, especially those in hard training for racing, has not unfrequently to be combated energetically if chronic lameness and deformity are to be avoided.

This condition, commonly known as sore shins," is usually ascribed to the concussion and strain to which the immature tissues of the limbs are subjected. It is generally witnessed in two or three year old race horses, mostly the former, and, unlike splints, the inflammation occurs on the front of the bones, nearly always towards the middle or the lower end of the shank. The symptoms are at first slight lameness and hesitation in extending the limbs when moving on hard ground; then the action becomes that of a cripple, and walking even induces pain. If galloping is continued when this stage has been reached, serious consequences will ensue. A very perceptible swelling appears on the front of the leg, as if the animal had received a blow there, and this is hot and very painful on pressure, while the attitude betrays uneasiness and suffering; this is still more indicated by constitutional disturbance, such as diminished appetite, fever, dejected countenance, &c. In extreme cases, when treatment has not been undertaken in time, these symptoms increase in intensity, the swelling will increase and, if not relieved by lancing, the bone involved may perish, the soft textures slough, and the patient eventually die. In many of those animals which recover, the bone remains enlarged where it was inflamed, and gives the limb a more or less deformed appearance.

In the early stage a speedy cure can generally be effected by appropriate treatment. The training should be suspended for a few days, and the animal allowed rest. The leg should be enveloped in lint covered by a calico bandage, and this must be kept constantly wet by lead lotion, with which has been mixed a little laudanum to lessen the pain. After two days, when the inflammation has been somewhat subdued, the part may be painted over with compound tincture of iodine, repeated every second or third day until the skin is slightly blistered; or, if the swelling is more considerable, the application of biniodide of mercury ointment instead will act more promptly and effectively as a blister. The diet should be soft food. If the case has been neglected and the swelling is great, deep scarification or incision will be necessary to relieve the pain and preserve the bone from serious alteration, but this had better be done by an expert. Such cases require a long rest and exercising gently on soft ground before training can be recommenced, and this should only be gradual.

Ringbone is an analogous condition to splint and sore shins, though it is, with regard to its consequences, a more serious cause of lameness than these. It is due to inflammation on the surface of the large or small pastern bones, and though it may appear on either hind or front pasterns, the former are probably most frequently the seat of it; exceedingly rarely the foot bone is affected, the membrane covering it-periosteum -being mainly involved. There is swelling, considerable lameness, and pain on pressure of the enlargement, which may be on any part of the bones, but is generally on the front or sides. The lameness is likely to remain permanently after the inflammation subsides, as the deposit of bone that almost inevitably results is immediately beneath the expansion of tendons and ligaments, and interferes with them. Sometimes the enlargement is so considerable as to catch the eye at once, while in other cases it requires a nice sense of touch to detect it. The horse has a tendency to travel more on the heels of the affected limb than is customary, and there is not much difference in the degree of lameness on soft or hard ground.

In the treatment, the animal must be rested as much as possible, cold applications being continuously made to the inflamed part, after which there should be repeated blistering with biniodide of mercury ointment; in bad cases it may be necessary to have recourse to the actual cautery. Spavin, the name commonly given to a diseased condition of the hock, is frequent in horses, and is generally marked by the presence of a bony tumour on the inner side of the front of that joint. It is due to much the same cause as splint and ringbone, the predisposition to it being a hock defective in shape. There is nearly always lameness, but the degree of this will depend not only upon the size of the tumour, but also upon the manner in which the implicated bones are affected; the lameness is nearly always permanent, and the horse usually travels more on the toe of the affected limb than when there is no spavin. When the disease is commencing, in order to ensure a rapid and satisfactory cure the joint should be relieved from weight and movement as much as may be possible, and this is best obtained by placing the animal in a sling and blistering the inside of the hock repeatedly, the stall being laid with moss litter. A long rest must be allowed, and, when the horse is put to work, this should at first be light. When spavin is very pronounced, so that the horse goes lame and treatment is of no avail, he can be much relieved in travelling by raising the heels of the shoe.

The Lameness from navicular disease is less frequent, perhaps, than it was half a century ago, thanks to a better knowledge of the horse's foot and how it should be managed, especially in the matter of shoeing. The causes of this troublesome malady are somewhat numerous. It may appear suddenly or gradually-suddenly when it is the effect of an accident, such as sprain of the perforans tendon where it passes over the navicular bone; or gradually when due to mismanagement of the fore feet, in which alone it is seen. symptoms are resting the affected foot when the horse is at rest, which is done by advancing the foot and raising the heel, and "pointing," as in this way the tendon is relieved from strain. The step is short and the toe comes sooner to the ground than the heel, hence the toe of the shoe is most worn; the temperature of the affected foot is increased, and in the stable the litter is often pawed away from before and raised behind the foot to give it a better resting place. Little can be done to cure the disease, though certain measures may palliate it and keep the horse serviceable. The foot should be kept cool, the toe of the hoof shortened as much as can be done with safety, and the frog allowed to come into contact with the ground, or, if this cannot be contrived, an artificial frog of indiarubber may be placed over it.

Lameness from congestion of the laminæ of the feet is not infrequently a result of overexertion in travelling, especially on hard ground in warm weather; it may also come from long continued standing in the stable or on board ship, and in some cases it may be a sequel of disease.

There is intense lameness, and the horse can scarcely move the fore feet, which usually suffer most. The tendency is to rest on the heels. The temperature of the feet is increased and there may be fever present, with impaired appetite. Gentle exercise and cold applications to the hoofs will frequently dispel the symptoms in a short time.

It is judicious treatment, after a long or a fast journey in the saddle during hot weather, to walk the horse about for some time after the rider has dismounted, so as to allow the circulation in the laminæ to acquire its normal condition.

Laminitis is the stage beyond congestion of the laminæ, and is much more serious, for here we have inflammation of these delicate and highly sensitive structures. The pain is much more intense, and movement is more distressing; there is fever and loss of appetite; the pastern arteries throb, and the agony is so intense that the body is often covered with perspiration. If the horse is standing, he will not attempt to lie down, and if recumbent he makes no effort to get up, but lies and groans, with the fore limbs thrust out in front of him. If the horse is standing, he must be put in a sling or compelled to lie down, so that the feet may be relieved by taking the weight off them; then cold water swabs must be wrapped round them, or cold bran poultices applied.

Morphia should be injected under the skin to diminish the pain, and the diet must be laxative and sparingly given until the inflammation subsides. Then gentle exercise in a loose-box or on soft ground may be permitted for a short time, and gradually increased until all danger of a relapse has disappeared.

It should be noted that in all cases of disease or accident in which the animal is compelled to lie for some days on the hard ground, or on hard litter such as wheat straw, there is danger of severe bruises to the prominent parts of the body, and these "bed-sores" have sometimes worse results than the disease or accident itself. To prevent or retard their appearance, the horse should rest on a thick bed of some soft material, such as dried moss, moss litter, or old but dry oat straw which has already served as bedding.

Corns are often a cause of lameness, especially when shoeing is not carefully attended to. What is termed a "corn" in a horse's foot is really a bruise of the sensitive sole, this bruise being the result of undue pressure, usually made by the shoe. The ordinary situation of the bruise is the angle formed by the wall and bar of the inside heel of the fore foot; corns may be said to be unknown in the hind feet. In some cases the lameness is considerable, and the bruise may run on to suppuration if neglected. The signs are those which are induced by pain in the back part of the foot, and tapping with a hammer upon the wall of the hoof in that situation will at once reveal the cause. Removal of the shoe is necessary, and paring away some of the horn at the bruised part-which will be bloodstained-is also required in order to discover the extent of the injury. If this is slight, nothing more may be necessary than lowering the wall at the heel so that it will not touch the shoe when this is nailed on, and, still further to ensure this, it is advisable to leave out the nail nearest the damaged heel.

When the bruise is more severe, the pain and inflammation will be lessened by immersing the foot in a bucket of warm water for an hour, or in a poultice for twelve hours. After this the shoe is to be put on and the bruised part smeared [VETERINARY WORK with Stockholm tar, care being taken that the shoe does not touch the heel when the horse's weight is on it.

In some cases of chronic corn much benefit is derived from the horse wearing a shoe with the part chopped off that would rest on the bruised heel.

Thrush is an unhealthy condition of the horny frog, brought about by the shoer paring it, by standing on foul litter, or by the frog not coming into contact with the ground, and sometimes it is an accompaniment of navicular disease. The horn is softened and ragged, and usually there is a very offensive discharge from the cleft in the middle of the frog. The treatment is simple.

Clean out the frog well, remove all shreds of horn, dress the cleft and other parts with calomel, covering this by pledgets of fine tow pushed firmly into the recesses, and keep the horse on dry, clean litter. In a day or two remove the tow and insert other pledgets smeared with Stockholm tar. After a few of these dressings the morbid condition disappears. 66 Sandcrack is not very common among light horses, but it is occasionally met with, and when it is suddenly produced generally causes severe lameness. It is a vertical split in the wall of the hoof extending, when it causes lameness, to the sensitive tissue within, from which blood sometimes escapes. In the fore foot the split is generally on the inside, rarely at the toe or outside; in the hind foot it is nearly always in front. It is usually produced during severe exertion, as when jumping, and commences at the top of the wall of the hoof. When the lameness is considerable, the foot should be kept in a bucket of warm water to soften the horn and reduce the pain. This may have to be frequently repeated. When the lameness has gone, and if the horn is sufficiently thick, a fine horse-shoe nail may be driven through the edge of the crack and the ends brought together by pliers so as to form a clamp to hold the sides of the fissure together; or the hoof may be firmly bound round with many strands of fine tar twine.

A little Stockholm tar may be rubbed into the coronet, above the crack, in order to stimulate the growth of sound strong horn. The shoe should not be allowed to rest on the part of the hoof corresponding to the crack. Seedy-toe," another disease of the foot, is sometimes accompanied by lameness. It is a separation between the wall of the hoof and the horny laminæ on its inner surface, and this separation may be only to a very limited extent, or it may involve a large portion of the wall, and extend from the lower border to near the coronet. There is little or nothing to denote its existence until the shoe is taken off, when the cavity is readily seen. This contains some loose crumbling horn, to which the disease probably owes its name. The cause is usually severe pressure on the wall of the hoof, produced by the shoer driving the clip of the shoe too close against it, and, as the clip is in front of the fore shoe, so we find the separation there. The hind feet are largely exempt from this defect. To make a radical cure, it is the best course to take away all the separated wall as far as the sound hoof, carefully removing all the discoloured horn beneath and cutting out all cracks and fissures in it. The gap left in the hoof can be filled up with gutta percha or covered with pitch. The shoe must not have a clip at the toe, but one on each side if necessary; the coronet should be stimulated to increased secretion by rubbing a little Stockholm tar into it at intervals of a few days.

The secretion of hoof horn is sometimes so very defective in quantity and quality that the shoer has great difficulty in attaching the shoes. This may arise from mismanagement of the feet, and espe- VETERINARY WORK] cially from the mutilation the hoofs undergo when being shod, such as over-paring the sole and frog and rasping the front of the wall, or rubbing oil and certain compositions on this part; or it may be due to natural weakness. The face of the wall should not be rasped, and the sole and frog never ought to have more than the loose portions removed from them, while nothing but water should be applied to the wall by means of a sponge. To promote a healthy secretion of hoof wall, the coronet should have an application of Stockholm tar at intervals of a few days.

Sprains. Muscles, tendons, and ligaments are all liable to sprain, those of the limbs of the horse -especially the fore ones-being particularly exposed to damage done by sudden and severe extension. In fast galloping and in jumping such accidents are most common, and in many cases the results are extremely serious, so far as the future soundness and usefulness of the horse are concerned. Sprain of tendons and ligaments is more frequent than that of muscles; the position of some of these, their function, and their texture, predispose to this accident, as do faulty conformation and weakness of structure, owing to lack of tone. The injury may be merely over-extension of the fibres, or these may be ruptured; the number involved may be very many, or only a comparatively small number. Sprain of muscle is indicated by lameness or stiffness, with pain on pressure, and sometimes swelling. The muscles of the limbs, especially those of the shoulder and hip, suffer most frequently from this injury. Fomentations with warm water and rest will be found the best treatment. It may be necessary in some cases to put the horse in a sling in order to secure rest.

It must be remarked that in the case of sprains of all kinds, as indeed in the matter of lameness generally, rest is an indispensable requisite in treatment, and nothing can be more injurious than to compel horses to take exercise until lameness has disappeared; as not only does this, in the majority of instances, cause a relapse, but it often converts a curable case into an incurable one, or an acute case into a chronic one. It is not at all unusual to hear of lame horses being turned out to exercise or to graze in order that they may become sound. Of course, when the limbs are injured it is most difficult, if not impossible, to secure that absolute rest which can so readily be obtained in man, but everything should be done to make it as perfect as circumstances will permit. Sprains of the shoulder and hip-joints, as well as of the muscles and ligaments in their vicinity, are not so frequent as of the tendons and ligaments below these, and are indicated by inability to extend the limb, and pain on manipulation.

Fomentations with warm water, rest, and the application of a blister over the part if the lameness does not subside in the course of a few weeks, are the measures to be adopted.

Sprain of the loins occurs in jumping, backing, pulling up suddenly in a fast pace, over-exertion in draught, getting cast in the stall, &c. If the horse can move, there is generally much difficulty in bringing the hind legs forward, with stiffness in the back and especially in turning round-a straddling gait, in which the hindquarters sway. more or less from side to side. If the horse lies down, he is often unable to rise without assistance, and not infrequently he cannot extend himself to micturate; there is nearly always pain on pressure over the loins. In severe cases, the horse is down and cannot get up, though the hind legs are warm and can be moved about, and sensation in them is perfect. This will differentiate sprain of the loins from broken back. Warm water fomentations to this part for several hours a day, with rubbing in of stimulating liniment in the intervals, sloppy diet, and slinging are about all that can be done by the amateur.

Sprains of the knee and hock are to be treated by fomentations with warm water, succeeded after a few days by lead lotion or tincture of arnica, applied by means of swabs round the joint. A frequent cause of lameness, especially in light horses, is a sprain of an important ligament at the back of the hock, producing a convex swelling more or less marked, and known as "curb."

Sudden severe exertion, such as jumping, bucking, the hind legs slipping forwards, &c., are the immediate exciting causes, but in very many instances the defective shape of the hock predisposes to the sprain. At first, in many cases, there may be considerable lameness with swelling of the part; in other cases the lameness is not very perceptible, though the curb may be distinctly observed. Even when the lameness does pass off, it is rare indeed for the swelling to subside. The treatment is limited to wrapping round the part fine tow or lint, and applying a bandage firmly over this, pouring in at the top, and frequently, tincture of arnica lotion, or one composed of sal ammoniac and nitre in the proportion of two ounces of each to a pint of water. The horse should be kept tied up in a stall. When the inflammation and lameness have subsided, the swelling should be frequently painted over with tincture of iodine or, better, a small portion of biniodide of mercury ointment may be rubbed in at intervals of a week. This may be continued when the horse is at work.

In speaking of curb, mention may here be made of what is called "Capped hock," which is usually due to contusion, but may in some instances arise from sprain; in the latter the swelling is on each side of the joint of the hock, in the former it is immediately on this part, and projecting backward. Unless the injury or sprain is very severe, the lameness at first is but slightly, if at all, noticeable, though there may be swelling, heat, and pain. If this is the case, a cooling lotion should be applied such as an ounce each of arnica and Goulard's extract in a pint of water, and by means of lint maintained by a bandage; if the lameness is marked, a high-heeled shoe will relieve it. In the course of a few days a stimulant may be used on the part, such as the tincture of iodine or the biniodide of mercury ointment. If the enlargement becomes chronic it is most difficult to reduce it. It has been recommended to plaster it over, while the horse is in the stable, with pipeclay or whiting mixed into a paste with vinegar, and this is to be rubbed off when the animal goes out to work. severe are Sprain of the back tendons occurs in either the fore or hind limbs, and is due to a sudden and effort. These tendons below and behind the knee and hock, and are two in number, one in front of the other-the posterior is the flexor of the pastern, the other, in front of it, is the flexor of the foot. It is rare that both are sprained, the one in front being most frequently involved in the accident, when the swelling is most marked at the inside and outside. If the posterior one is sprained, the swelling is noticeable immediately behind, and forms a convexity. There is swelling, heat, and pain on handling the part, and lameness commensurate with the degree of injury. The limb at the seat of sprain should be thickly enveloped in tow, cotton wool, or lint, and bandaged firmly, then the arnica and Goulard's extract is poured in between the padding and the skin, which is to be kept continually moist with it. Or, if the weather is not cold, water may be applied by means of a hose from the water tap. A high-heeled shoe should be put on the foot if the horse is afraid to place his weight on the limb; indeed, in all cases this kind of shoe expedites recovery, but it should not be kept on longer than a fortnight. Instead of employing the lotion or cold water, it has been recommended to pad the sprained part firmly by first wrapping a moderately tight bandage round it, then on top of this at each side, a thick pledget of cotton wool evenly laid on, and another long bandage tightly wound over all. The bandages must be removed morning and evening and re-applied, the leg being gently rubbed each time they are taken off, and bent up and down.

When the pain and lameness have disappeared, and thickening of the tendon remains, it will be advisable to blister it, perhaps repeatedly, with biniodide of mercury or cantharides ointment.

Sprain of the check ligament below the knee, or of the suspensory ligament, is indicated by similar symptoms to sprain of the back tendon, the horse manifesting signs of pain on pressure of these parts. The treatment must be the same as first indicated, though it has usually to be longer continued.

Diseases. Only a few of the many diseases the horse is liable to can be noticed here, and these must be those which the amateur can deal with, or at any rate palliate, until the arrival of the veterinary surgeon.

Congestion of the Lungs. - None of the domesticated animals is more liable to congestion of the lungs than the horse. This is doubtless due in some degree to his anatomical structure, but more to the nature of his work and the management to which he is subjected, and also in many cases to the nature of his surroundings.

Congestion of the lungs may be an accompaniment or sequel of other diseases, or occur by itself, when it usually appears in the acute form, or "pulmonary apoplexy," as it is termed. This may be induced by sudden severe exertion when the horse is not in condition, or it may be brought on by long-continued severe work when not in good training-as in the hunting field; it may also be caused by exposure to cold, and especially to cold winds and wet. The symptoms are very marked; the breathing is extremely hurried and laboured, the nostrils are widely dilated, the head is carried low, and the countenance is anxious and haggard; the body is often covered with cold perspiration, the legs are stretched out and are cold-the flanks heave tumultuously, there is tremor of the muscles, and, if the congestion has been induced by over-exertion, the heart can be heard beating violently. When the congestion is extreme in many cases blood flows from the nostrils, and if this is foamy it is an indication that the blood is effused into the lungs. If not speedily relieved, the horse will succumb to suffocation; so that treatment must be prompt. The horse should not be moved or disturbed, if possible, and, if he is wearing harness, this ought to be removed. An abundance of fresh air must be allowed; if the horse is in the field his face must be turned to the wind, and if in the stable his head ought to be brought to the door; the legs and body are to be well rubbed and clothed; before the limbs are bandaged they may be rubbed with stimulating liniment. Brandy or whisky should be given in large doses (four to six ounces) and frequently at first-say every two hours for two or three doses, in a pint or two of water, warm, if possible, or in oatmeal gruel. Tincture of arnica in doses of one or two ounces has been recommended. If there is thirst, tepid water or warm oatmeal gruel can be given. In very urgent cases the horse's life may be saved by abstracting a quantity of blood [VETERINARY WORK from four to six quarts-from the jugular vein, but this operation requires some skill. When the animal is able to eat, the diet for some days should be restricted and of a kind that is readily digested; quietness is necessary, and the body and legs must be kept warm.

Inflammation of the Lungs. This is often a sequel of congestion of the lungs, though it may also follow catarrh, bronchitis, &c., or occur spontaneously. It differs in symptoms from congestion by the presence of fever-otherwise the symptoms, if perhaps less urgent at first, are somewhat similar. The horse is dull and prostrate, though he may wander about the loose box, but seldom lies down. The surface of the body and the legs are often cold, though the mouth is hot and dry, and the lining membrane of the eyes and nostrils is of a dark red colour; a short painful cough is emitted from time to time, and when the disease is advanced there is not infrequently a rusty-coloured discharge from the nostrils. In some cases the inflammation is complicated with pleurisy. With regard to treatment, this is somewhat the same as for congestion, so far as keeping the body warm, fresh air, and diet are concerned. Every four hours there should be given, in a quart of thin gruel or tepid water, tincture of aconite six minims, nitric ether one ounce, solution of acetate of ammonia four ounces. But, if there is much weakness, for this draught may be substituted six ounces of brandy or whisky three or four times a day. The food is often refused, so it should be made as enticing as possible; it may consist of sloppy mashes of bran or boiled linseed, with oatmeal gruel, a small quantity of picked hay, green forage, and sliced carrots, &c. Cold or tepid water is to be given to drink, with an ounce of nitrate of potass dissolved in a bucket of it. Litter should be thinly spread on the floor of the stall or box, so that it may not get entangled among the feet, and great attention should be paid to the admission of fresh air without draughts. When recovery has begun and only debility remains, a more generous diet can safely be allowed, and with it a tonic-such as finely powdered sulphate of iron in one or two drachm doses daily, mixed up in a little mash, morning and evening. so Bronchitis. This is an inflammation of the membrane lining the air-passages entering the lungs, and is usually due to colds. It nearly always begins with shivering and dulness, and some degree of fever, as well as loud, hard, and very frequent cough, accompanied by quicker breathing than in health. A discharge from the nostrils is generally present. The cough increases in frequency and severity, and causes exhaustion and loss of appetite; consequently debility soon sets in, and death not infrequently ensues from the air cells of the lungs becoming filled up with effusion. When the fever gradually subsides and the cough becomes softer and less frequent, the discharge from the nostrils ceasing and the appetite returning, amendment is taking place.

When bronchitis occurs in cold weather, which is usually the case, the horse should be kept in a well-ventilated loose box, the body well clothed, and the legs enveloped in woollen bandages after being firmly hand rubbed. The throat should be well rubbed with stimulating liniment-such as compound camphor liniment, which may also be applied to the sides of the chest; or a woollen blanket may be wrapped round the chest, and hot water poured on the outside of it for an hour or two at a time, after which the blanket is to be taken off, the skin well dried, and the liniment rubbed into it. The horse should also be made to inhale the vapour of hot water from a bucket VETERINARY WORK] on which some hay has been spread; into this water a quantity of oil of turpentine or carbolic acid may be poured. A draught composed of camphor one drachm, solution of acetate of ammonia two ounces, and nitric ether one ounce, all mixed-up in a pint of tepid water, should be given two or three times a day. The diet to be as for inflammation of the lungs.

Colds. Catarrh is very common among horses kept in hot, badly-ventilated stables, or exposed to variable weather, especially cold and wet. An attack usually begins with sneezing and slight fever, perhaps shivering; the legs are also cold, and the horse is dull and listless. Then cough becomes frequent, there is discharge from the eyes and nostrils, and soreness of throat is shown by more or less difficulty in swallowing and swelling of the glands about the jaws. The breathing is but little disturbed, and the horse gets up and lies down. With judicious treatment of a simple kind the symptoms subside in a week or ten days, and complete restoration to health is generally the result. Good nursing is nearly all that is required in the way of treatment. A comfortable, well-aired stable, clothing for the body and legs. sloppy mashes, with carrots, a little good hay, and water into which small quantities of nitre have been introduced, are about all that is needed until convalescence sets in. If the cough is troublesome, the upper part of the throat may be rubbed with camphor liniment, and the head held over the vapour of hot water in a bucket, to which oil of turpentine has been added.

Exhaustion. - When this is due to overexertion of any kind-as in the hunting fieldthe symptoms are not unlike those of acute congestion of the lungs. While going, the horse becomes unsteady in his pace and soon begins to stagger; the breathing is hurried and distressed and often accompanied by sighing, the eyes show extreme anxiety, the ears and tail are drooping, the body is covered with cold perspiration, and the head is carried low and heavily. If the pace is continued, the horse will quickly fall and lie in a semi-comatose state until he slowly rallies, if he does not speedily die. No horseman would knowingly or willingly push his horse to this dangerous stage of exhaustion, and there must be few indeed who could not perceive when it was being approached and take action accordingly. The horse must be relieved from saddle, bridle, or other harness, and allowed to stand at liberty with his face to the wind. If brandy or other spirit is at hand, six ounces in water should be carefully poured down his throat, if he can swallow it all at once; if not, then it must be given by one or two mouthfuls at a time. When he has somewhat rallied, a little cold water or some tepid gruel may be offered him, and then his legs and body can be well rubbed.

Fits and Fainting. - Horses are sometimes attacked with epilepsy, usually while at work, and as the attack is sudden and generally without warning, it is not without its inconveniences and dangers if the animal is being ridden or driven.

Harness horses appear to be most liable to these attacks, though they are sometimes witnessed in riding horses. In some cases the attack is begun by a few rapid shakes of the head, then the horse staggers, may give a slight scream, and, running forward, falls unconscious. The limbs and lips are moved convulsively, the jaws are champed, and the eyes rotate in their sockets. After lying for a short time, consciousness is regained, though the horse may be unable to rise immediately. He looks stupefied, bewildered, depressed, and is an hour or two before he resumes his normal condition. But little can be done in such cases in the way of treatment with any prospect of cure.

When the premonitory symptoms such as shaking of the head are observed, the horse ought to be pulled up and held by the head to prevent his falling, and this timely succour may avert the more severe phases of the attack.

Should he fall, efforts must be made to prevent him doing damage to himself by keeping his head down and throwing a rope or rein round his legs. Two or three ounces of alcohol in water will be beneficial when the attack has passed off.

Horses sometimes, though rarely, faint. They fall to the ground suddenly and are unconscious, but they lie perfectly still and do not struggle as in epilepsy. The girths and throat strap should be loosened, and, if the horse is wearing a collar, this ought to be shifted up the neck. Cold water may be applied to the head and passed into the mouth mo by means of a sponge or handkerchief; when the horse can drink, water should be offered, and a dose of alcohol-four to six ouncesadministered in a quart of water or gruel. Sunstroke or Heat Apoplexy. - Horses soon experience exhaustion when undergoing exertion in a high, moist temperature, and especially in the direct rays of the sun. Even when away from the sun's rays and standing quiet, great exhaustion, and even death, may occur in a very hot climate.

The animal suddenly becomes distressed, breathes heavily and quickly, ceases to travel or to notice surroundings, and, if not urged on, lies down, when he may become more or less unconscious, struggle with his forelimbs and make attempts to rise, or he may remain quite tranquil.

In a severe case, the temperature of the body is increased and the breathing inore rapid, and the muscles are in a state of tremor, with perspiration covering the skin. In these cases death often ensues en in a few hours. Treatment, to be of any avail, must be prompt. If the horse is out of doors and there is any shade procurable, he ought to be moved to it, and all equipment removed from him; cold water should be dashed over his head and body, and the air agitated above him by means of a waving blanket, board, or sheet; hand-rub the legs. If there is struggling, the legs should be tied, and when the horse is able to swallow, a dose of alcohol and water may be given. Careful dieting must be observed for a few days after recovery, and the horse should not be exposed to a high temperature until he is well and strong.

Colic. Colic is not an infrequent disease where stable management, and especially feeding and watering, are not properly attended to. Bad or improper food, giving water immediately after grain, exposure to cold draughts of air, particularly on the legs, drinking a large quantity of water during cold weather, or at any time if the horse is exhausted, are the chief causes of colic.

The symptoms are well marked. The horse is very restless and violent in his movements; he strikes at his belly with the hind feet, stamps and paws, often throws himself down and rolls and looks back at his flank. There are lulls in these manifestations, during which the horse appears to be nothing amiss and may commence to eat, until another attack comes on. If the pain is due to spasm of the bowels, the abdomen is not altered in dimensions, but if flatulence is the cause-and this is generally the case in cribbiters and wind-suckers-then it will be much distended. As spasmodic colic is the most painful form, the horse is more violent during the paroxysms, but these are longer continued in flatulent colic, and the horse lies down more carefully. Colic is usually readily and speedily amenable to treatment. The horse must be prevented from throwing himself down, and four to six ounces of whisky or brandy administered in a quart of warm water, or, better still, if at hand, two or three ounces of laudanum; much benefit is also conferred by rubbing the surface of the abdomen firmly with wisps of hay or straw, or fomenting it with hot water. It is generally advisable to give a dose of purgative medicinesuch as from four to six drachms of aloes dissolved in a pint of warm water; and an enema of warm water will aid in relieving the intestines.

In flatulent colic, the addition of an ounce each of ammonia and oil of turpentine to the laudanum will be most useful.

Inflammation of the Bowels. This most painful and rapidly fatal disease may be ascribed to several causes, among them being colic, poisonous substances, exposure to cold, exhaustion, drinking much cold water when fatigued, &c. The earlier symptoms are those of colic, though to the expert there appear others which differentiate it from that disease; the horse lies down with greater care, the pain is continuous, and its severity is indicated by the animal's expression; the pulse and respiration are hurried, groaning is frequent, and the skin is wet with perspiration. All these symptoms become aggravated, and if not soon relieved the horse dies. To assuage the pain, large doses of opium powder mixed in tepid water -beginning with one drachm and followed at short intervals by half-drachm doses should be administered; blankets steeped in hot water must be applied to the abdomen for an hour at a time, stimulating liniment being used in the intervals.

Enemas of warm water may be administered twice or thrice, but in small quantity. For this disease the veterinary surgeon should be sent for as soon as possible.

Rheumatism. - Some horses are very subject to attacks of rheumatism about the joints, sheaths of tendons, muscles, &c., and they may be acute or chronic. Exposure to cold winds and wet weather will induce them, and they sometimes accompany such diseases as influenza. In the acute cases there is often a considerable degree of fever, and the disease localises itself in one or more parts of the body, e.g., in the stifle, hock, knee, sheaths of tendons; there is generally swelling and great lameness, with pain on handling the parts, and sometimes the disease will suddenly leave one situation to appear in another. With regard to treatment, the horse must be kept warm and comfortable, fed on sloppy food, and given oatmeal gruel in which bicarbonate of potass in ounce doses has been dissolved. If the fever runs high, salicylate of sodium in two-drachm doses should be given in a pint of water or gruel three times a day. The inflamed parts may be fomented with warm water and bathed with tincture of arnica or laudanum; when the inflammation is subsiding, they should be frequently rubbed with soap liniment, or one composed of Coutts' acetic acid, whisky, and oil of turpentine, two ounces of each, with the white of one egg beaten up in them. The skin should be well brushed, and the liniment then firmly rubbed in.

Surfeit. This term is popularly applied to several affections of the skin, but more especially to one which appears as an eruption of small, hard lumps in different parts of the body, accompanied by itching and symptoms of indigestion. It is usually transient, and disappears in a few days. Care should be taken with regard to the diet, and a mild laxative may be given such as an ounce of sulphur in a small mash, or a pint of linseed oil; an ounce of nitrate or carbonate of potass should be given in the drinking water once a day.

Eczema is a term also sometimes applied to [VETERINARY WORK surfeit and to some other diseases of the skin, but it is usually employed to describe a condition in which there is an eruption on one or more parts-back, sides, shoulders, neck, and root of tail-of minute vesicles or blisters that burst, when scabs or scales form in their place, and the hair falls off. There is considerable itching, which causes the horse to rub or gnaw the affected part. It generally appears in summer, and in some horses recurs year after year. It is not contagious, and is very troublesome to get rid of, as it must be ascribed in the majority of cases to constitutional causes. In treating the affection, attention must be paid to the diet, which ought to be of a laxative kind. Arsenic has been given in three-grain doses in a little mash every morning and continued for some months with advantage, with a mild dose of physic once a week, and the following lotion has been applied to the skin; bicarbonate of soda one ounce, oxide of zinc two ounces, and lime-water eight ounces; to be thoroughly mixed. For chronic cases, boracic acid ointment, to every ounce of which a few drops of creosote have been added, may be well rubbed into the part night and morning.

Mud Fever. This odd designation has been given to an inflammation of the skin which is usually seen in winter among horses whose limbs or bodies are liable to be spattered with very cold mud or that of an acrid kind. It is most frequently seen in hunters whose stable management is not carefully attended to, and is easily prevented by abstaining from clipping the hair off the legs, and not washing them when the horse returns to his stable, unless they can be thoroughly dried and kept warm. As much as possible of the mud should be removed by a wisp, and when the skin is dry the remainder must be brushed out. If the legs must be washed to free them from dirt, this should be done with cold water in a place sheltered from the wind; then they ought to be dried, well hand-rubbed, and covered with flannel bandages. When the skin is inflamed and painful, it should be dressed with Goulard's extract of lead, one ounce to the pint of water or to four ounces of olive oil; oxide of zinc ointment answers the same purpose-as does also a liniment composed of Goulard's extract five ounces, eucalyptus oil and laudanum of each one ounce, and olive oil five ounces; or another liniment made up of acetate of lead one ounce, olive oil one pint, water one pint, to be well rubbed up together. Either of these may be applied once or twice a day, and continued for some time after the inflammation has gone, if the horse has to go out in cold, wet weather.

If fever is present, a mild laxative will prove beneficial, as will also half an ounce of bicarbonate of potass in small mash morning and evening. a Cracked Heels. The skin behind the pasterns is very liable to become inflamed from the same causes as produce mud fever, the inflammation in both being erythema; but in the heels it often runs on to ulceration in the form of cracks or fissures; consequently there is great pain and lameness, the horse walking on his toes in a very cramped manner. Not only will mud and dirt cause cracked heels in cold weather, but fine. peaty sand will do the same, especially if there is wet. Even washing the heels and not drying them will often excite inflammation of the skin.

Clipping the hair off, no doubt, predisposes to it.

To cure the ailment, the skin should be well cleansed, and if there are cracks it will be advantageous to apply a linseed meal or bran poultice to free them from dirt and allay the pain. Afterwards use either of the applications prescribed for mud fever. If the skin is not VETERINARY WORK WORK] cracked, the zinc ointment answers well, and if there is a discharge from it, powdered oxide of zinc rubbed gently into it will be beneficial.

When cured, it is advisable to smear over the skin with an ointment composed of equal parts of lard and beeswax to protect it from the weather and dirt, for some time.

Warts. These are sometimes, from their situation, troublesome, and often cause inconvenience when they are in the way of the harness. They grow only from the skin, but their mode of growth varies, and this influences the measures to be adopted for their extirpation. Those with a narrow pedicle may be removed by tying a silk thread tightly round that part, or snipping them off by knife or scissors; others can be pulled off by the thumb and first finger nails, while those with a wide base have to be dealt with by the very careful application of arsenic, after making the surface slightly raw; sometimes the application of strong acetic acid or a solution of chronic acid will destroy them.

Itching Tail. Some horses are disposed to rub their tail on every opportunity, and to such an extent as to break the hair and even make the skin raw. In some cases this is due to eczema at the root of the tail; in other cases there may be some irritation underneath, or when nothing can be discovered there may exist a morbid sensation in the skin of the tail which impels the horse to rub it so continuously and energetically.

The cause should be ascertained, and a remedy then applied. If the itching is due to irritation of the skin, one of the dressings recommended for eczema may be tried; if it is owing to small worms about the anus or the rectum, these can be removed by injections of a solution of common salt or an infusion of quassia chips. When the rubbing is persistent, the root of the tail should be covered by a leather or cloth guard fastened to a crupper, and beneath the tail by tapes.

Ringworm. This is an unusual disease among well-kept horses, and is always due to contagion, the spores of the fungus which occasion it being derived directly from affected horses, or through the medium of clothing, brushes, harness, &c., which have been in contact with them. At first there are minute elevations on the skin which can be felt with the fingers, and soon the hairs at these spots break, leaving a bare place that extends more or less rapidly, and generally in a circular manner. In this way the whole of the skin will be soon invaded by the parasite, and the horse then presents an unpleasant appearance.

There is slight inflammation in some parts of the denuded patches, with a raw surface, but the horses do not seem to suffer much, if any, inconvenience. Precautions must be taken with a view to prevent the disease extending to other horses. and all brushes, combs, &c., should be well washed in a strong solution of chinosol; blankets should also be steeped in this solution. The horse must be dressed with an effective parasiticide-the best I have found to be chinosol ointment; it is not only a potent destroyer of the fungus, but, being nonpoisonous to the horse, it can be freely applied over the entire body if need be; it should be well rubbed in, and left on the skin for two or three days before it is washed off.

Mange. This is caused by a minute insect of which there are three kinds, but the most common, and certainly the most troublesome, is the one that infests the whole surface of the body and burrows into the skin. It causes an intense itching from which there is no respite; consequently the infected horse has not a minute's rest, but rubs and gnaws himself day and night. The hair is shed where the insects burrow, and there are minute raw places that are sometimes covered with crusts. In the course of time, from the incessant irritation, the horse suffers in health and becomes emaciated, while the skin is gathered up in wrinkles and is raw and scaly. As the disease is very contagious and can be communicated even to men, efforts should be made to prevent its extension and to cure it as soon as possible. All implements and clothing must be thoroughly cleansed, as well as the stall or stable and fittings; the litter used by the infected horse or horses ought not to be put in the manure pit. The horses should be dressed over the entire body with chinosol ointment after they have been well washed with soft soap and warm water and dried; if the coat is long, it should be clipped off. If the ointment cannot be procured, or is deemed too expensive, the following makes a good and a cheap dressing: powdered sulphur eight ounces, oil of tar one ounce, common oil one quart.

These should be well mixed, allowed to simmer at a gentle heat, and frequently stirred. When being applied to the skin, the dressing should again be kept stirred. After two or three days another application should be made, and in two days more a complete cure may be relied on and the dressing washed off.

DOGS. As might be anticipated, the dog is very much less liable to disease, and is far more exempted from injury than the horse; and the sporting dog lives a healthier life than the overdomesticated creature that is pampered and limited in its movements to a short stroll beyond the drawing-room. So that when given good food and kept clean, the dog used for sport is comparatively free from serious disorders, though perhaps he incurs some risks that are inseparable from the work he is called upon to perform.

Wounds. These are not, as a rule, so serious in the dog as they generally are in the horse, because the intelligence of the former greatly assists in ensuring the position and quietude essential to the repair of injuries. The different kinds of wounds described as occurring in the horse are met with in the dog, and it is sometimes quite astonishing to find this animal recover rapidly, often without any assistance, from the gravest incised and lacerated wounds, which would be considered almost beyond repair in the larger animal. Perhaps the commonest wounds those from the bites of other dogs, and as these .. are 1 Quarrelsome and savage dogs are dangerous not only to others, but to mankind, and it is well therefore to know how to act in releasing oneself from the fangs of such an animal, rescuing a helpless dog that is being worried by him, or in separating fighting dogs. I will here quote what I wrote on this subject some years ago in my work on Rabies and Hydrophobia: "The only safe place to seize a dog is at the back of the neck, behind the head; there the skin is sufficiently loose to afford a good hold, while the hands and arms cannot be touched by the animal's teeth so long as the grasp is maintained.. Blows will not prevent dogs biting and holding on; indeed, they will generally make them more furious.

The simplest, safest, and by far the most effectual plan of rescuing one's self, or defending other persons or dogs from some infuriated or mad animal's fangs, is choking him. If the animal wears a collar this is easily done, as one has only to seize it firmly at the back and pull it tightly against the throat in front; the knee, the foot, or the other hand will usefully aid in the operation by pressing strongly against the back of the neck.

The dog should by no means be released immediately he lets go his hold, but ought to be still further choked until he is harmless for the time, ... are punctured they are more troublesome to deal with than some of the other kinds; moreover, they may be inflicted by rabid dogs or by those with foul mouths and teeth, which may lead to dangerous disease. With ordinary wounds very little, if any, treatment is needed, beyond keeping them clean, and this the dog's tongue will generally accomplish if the part is within reach. If any dressing is required it should be of a nonpoisonous kind, such as solution of chinosol. Simple wounds can be painted over with collodion, friar's balsam, or solution of gutta percha, or an ointment of oxide of zinc, iodoform, or boracic may be employed; but, when they are applied, the dog should wear a muzzle to prevent him licking them off, unless a bandage will answer the purpose. He must also be kept well muzzled when large wounds are in process of healing, as at a certain stage there is so much irritation that he would otherwise do great mischief to himself by tearing the part with his teeth. Large gaping wounds may be closed by stitches in the manner described for the horse, though it is to be observed that sutures rapidly ulcerate out in the dog. This may be obviated to some extent, however, by not bringing the sides of the wound too close together, so as to allow for the subsequent swelling, and the stitches themselves must not be very near the margin. In many cases the sides of the wound can be kept in apposition by glue or pitch plasters, or by bandages if the wound will permit. The wounds of dogs, if beyond reach of the tongue, and if the weather happens to be warm, are likely to become infested with maggots when not kept clean. These can be got rid of by washing the wound with solution of chinosol.

Fractures. Broken bones are very frequent in dogs, as they are much exposed to external violence; but fortunately, owing to their comparatively small size and their intelligence, they may be easily handled, and the fractures can therefore be satisfactorily examined, set, and fixed in the best position for repair, the animals themselves aiding in this by remaining patient and tranquil. Besides, repair is usually rapid, and constitutional disturbance rarely takes place.

Fractures of the skull are always serious. If the bones are depressed, so as to make pressure on the brain, they must be raised, and removed if necessary. The lower jaw is sometimes broken, but unless there is much displacement, little more is needed than taking away any splinters or loose teeth. Broken ribs are extremely rare, as these bones have long cartilages and are very elastic; when this accident does occur, a wide bandage fastened tightly round the chest, and quiet, are all that is necessary. Fracture of the bones of the shoulder blade is dealt with by applying a pitch plaster to the skin over it, making it firmer by splints of pasteboard, while a starch bandage passed round the neck and fore-arm in a figure of 8 manner, and then round the body two or three times, keeps the shoulder immovable. The arm bone (humerus) and thigh bone (femur) are often broken, and until it is convenient to fix them properly, the leg should be firmly bound up with a handkerchief to prevent displacement.

When all is ready, the broken bone is "set" by bringing the fractured ends together and keeping them in place by means of bandages and splints. when means may be had recourse to for securing him properly. When there is no collar on the neck, a strong handkerchief or piece of cord tied round it and pulled in the same manner, or twisted with a stick, is a ready appliance.... It requires strong arms and a little coolness and tact." [VETERINARY WORK If there is a wound extending to the fracture, it should not be covered by the retaining apparatus; and if there is swelling, before reducing the fracture it is well to get rid of it by warm water fomentations. When bandaging, allowance must also be made for subsequent swelling, as the circulation in the part may be seriously hindered if the bandage is too tight. The splints may be of wood, cardboard, stiff leather, sheepskin, or gutta percha; there is often advantage in having them of some material that will become pliable when steeped in warm water, as then they can be made to fit better; otherwise they are liable to cause bruises or ulceration. Various substances are employed to stiffen the bandages and support the splints, and keep them in place; these substances are usually solution of gum, pitch, starch, or plaster of Paris. The pitch is melted and applied at a moderate heat; it is smeared over the skin or the bandage, as is also the gum; the starch is dissolved in laundry fashion, the bandage soaked in it, and then rolled round the limb. The plaster of Paris bandage is generally preferred, and is prepared by spreading the gypsum in a dry condition over the extended bandage, rolling this up, and then steeping it in water. The limb having been enveloped in a dry cotton bandage, that with the plaster in it is put on evenly above it; when it becomes dry it forms a rigid case, so that no splints are required. When pitch is employed, it may be spread on basil leather, and pieces of this having been stuck on the skin inside and outside the limb, a long splint is placed outside, and held there by a bandage or broad tape. The entire limb may be kept immovable by a bandage encircling it and the body.

Fractures of the other bones of the limbs are to be treated in a similar manner. Detached splinters of bone, if projecting through a wound, are to be removed by means of forceps, and the wound is itself to be dressed with chinosol. After a limb is set, there is often so much irritation that the dog shows a disposition to tear off the bandages; a muzzle should therefore be worn for some days. The splints and bandages should not be removed in less than a month. A dose of cathartic medicine is beneficial.

Dislocations. - Dislocations readily take place in the limbs of dogs, especially if young, and are in some cases complicated with fracture. There should be no difficulty in discovering them, the lameness and distortion being significant, while the absence of crepitation distinguishes them from fractures. After reduction, which is effected by extension and judicious manipulation, the limb must be bandaged as in the case of fractures, and kept immovable for as long a time.

Diseases and Accidents to the Feet. - Foot lameness in the dog is due to a variety of causes, and in order to discover these, a careful examination of the toes and pad is necessary. In addition to the lameness, the animal favours the limb in every way and frequently licks it. There is also pain on manipulation. Thorns, pins, and other sharp foreign bodies are a frequent cause; these should be sought for, removed, and the foot immersed in hot water or poulticed. When the foot is bruised or crushed, the same treatment will generally suffice. The pad is liable to overwear from long travelling on hard, broken ground, and sometimes the pain is so great that the animal has difficulty in moving; in some cases there may be actual inflammation and ulceration of the skin, with accompanying fever. This accident occurs more especially in sporting dogs which are not in condition when suddenly put to hard work; they may also be due to frost-bite. When the feet are merely tender, resting them for a few VETERINARY WORK] days and bathing with milk and water, or solution of alum or sulphate of zinc, and wrapping them up in a piece of cloth, will set them right. In the more severe cases, fomentations with hot water and poultices will subdue the pain; the poultices must be protected with a bandage or a laced boot made of cloth or soft leather, and the dog should wear a muzzle. In two or three days, astringent lotions such as solution of alum or sulphate of zinc-may be applied. If an abscess forms, it must be opened and the resulting wound dressed with chinosol or iodoform. A long rest will be necessary to ensure recovery, and the dog may have to wear a boot for a considerable time afterwards. In such cases, a good but temporary protection to the skin is afforded by painting it with a solution of gutta percha.

An eczematous condition of the skin between the toes is at times observed, redness, vesicles, and moisture being the chief symptoms; in these cases a similar eruption is generally noticed elsewhere.

Powdering the inflamed skin with chinosol, oxide of zinc, or iodoform once or twice a day and keeping the feet dry, is the local treatment to be adopted, and it may be necessary to supplement this by the administration, morning and night, of a few drops (4 to 10) of Fowler's solution of arsenic, given in milk or broth.

In mange the parasites sometimes burrow in the skin around the root of the toe nails, and cause much irritation, ulceration, and eventual loosening of the claws. This condition is usually troublesome to get rid of, and it may be needful to extract the claws before a radical cure can be effected. Chinosol ointment may be tried before this operation is adopted; it is certainly most useful after it. An ulcer is occasionally found beneath the claw, from which there is a slight discharge. This is caused by dirt, or the sand used on kennel floors, finding entrance between the skin and claw; there is soreness and swelling around the horn. In many cases the claw must be extracted; then the toe is poulticed for a day or two, and afterwards dressed with tincture of calendula or myrrh.

Over-grown Claws are more frequently seen in house than in sporting dogs, owing to their receiving insufficient exercise out of doors. The claw grows to such a length that it curls backward and inward until it enters the pad, and causes ulceration and intense pain. The claw must be shortened by wire nippers, pruning scissors, or a small triangular saw-though this last is not to be recommended. The foot is then to be poulticed, and the wound afterwards dressed for a few days with chinosol lotion, to be succeeded by solution of gutta percha. Not infrequently parasites of different kindsamong them harvest mites-lodge between the toes, and cause the dog such great annoyance that he bites the skin severely. An examination will reveal the presence of these insects, and dressings with chinosol ointment will kill them.

Ticks. Sporting dogs are occasionally troubled with ticks on the surface of their body, which give rise to restlessness and local irritation. A good dressing with chinosol lotion or ointment will cause them to disappear, though they may also be removed by the fingers, or with scissors or forceps. Washing the dog in warm water to which a small quantity of chinosol or ammonia has been added will allav the irritation.

Burns and Scalds. These accidents are not very frequent with dogs. A very good application is the famous carron oil, which is a mixture of lime water and linseed oil in equal parts.

Cotton wool is to be dipped in this and applied to the injured parts. A solution of picric acidmade by dissolving the acid in water until no more can be taken up-painted over the burnt place, which is then to be powdered with starch or wheat flour, is sometimes recommended, as is also bathing the part with a solution of baking soda, and afterwards dusting it with chalk, flour, starch, or kaolin.

Diseases of the Skin. - These are comparatively few, but two or three of them are rather common. a Eczema. This is a special form of inflammation of the skin, largely due to constitutional causes, and is extremely difficult to get rid of in the great majority of cases. The skin is inflamed, more or less destitute of hair, and has a crop of vesicles or a moist discharge on its surface. Only small portion may be affected, or the greater part of the body may be involved. There is not much itching.

When local, if the disease is only slight, oxide of zinc powder may be dusted on the part, or kaolin if it is very moist; should the surface be raw, chrysophanic ointment ought to be applied once or twice a day, the kaolin or zinc powder being put on afterwards. When the disease is very extensive there is a tendency to rub the skin, and the dog should therefore wear a muzzle, or a broad collar round his neck. External treatment must be supplemented by internal medication.

Fowler's solution of arsenic is usually prescribed in doses of from three to twenty drops twice daily; the smaller quantity is given at the commencement, the dose being gradually increased up to the maximum, but for small dogs this should not exceed ten or twelve drops; it may be given in the food. As there is generally some debility, this medicament is often combined with tonics, and the following is a good formula :--- 2 drachms. 3 drachms.

Citrate of iron Acetate of potash.

Fowler's solution of arsenic.. I drachms.

Infusion of calumba 8 ounces.

One teaspoonful increasing up to one tablespoonful is to be given twice a day. This mixture should be continued for a considerable periodseveral months-though it is recommended that an interval of a week should be allowed between each quantity. It may also be necessary to give cod liver oil or malt extract. The food should be chiefly meat, and the dog ought to have abundant exercise.

Mange. There are two forms of this disease in the dog, in one of which the insect lives on or in the surface of the skin (Sarcoptic scabies), and is easily destroyed. The parasite multiplies rapidly and soon spreads over the body, causing great irritation and congestion of the skin, with continuous itching. Consequently the dog is always scratching and biting itself, making the skin sore; while the parasite, burrowing into the substance of this, causes the formation of vesicles or pustules, which break, discharge, and form small scabs. Various remedies have been prescribed, but chinosol ointment I have found as good as any. Some of the others are as follows: balsam of Peru, one part dissolved in alcohol four parts; or sublimed sulphur and whale oil, of each sixteen parts, well mixed with one part each of mercurial ointment and oil of tar; or one ounce each of oil of tar and sulphur well mixed in a pint of common oil; or lime and sulphur eight ounces, water three and a half pints, to be boiled until there is only one part left; or oil of tar, powdered sulphur, powdered oxide of zinc, of each one drachm, glycerine two drachms, lanolin one and a half ounces. Whatever application is selected, it is advisable first to wash the dog thoroughly with soft soap and warm water; if the coat is long, it must be removed, and the dressing should be applied at least once again in two or three days, when the skin may be again washed. As the dog, in scratching itself, is likely to carry some of the parasites to the root of its claws, particular care should be observed in washing and dressing the toes, as well as every part of the skin elsewhere. The affected dog should be kept isolated from all others, and everything with which it has been in contact must be destroyed or thoroughly cleansed. It may be necessary to attend to the general health by giving tonic and laxative medicine, as well as good food and shelter.

The other form of the disease is known as "follicular mange," because the peculiar parasite that causes it is lodged deeply in the hair follicles of the skin; and therefore, though it is less contagious than sarcoptic mange, it is far more intractable to deal with. It usually commences in patches about the head, but soon extends to the body, and is most noticeable about the loins, sides, belly, and legs, to which it gives a very disagreeable appearance, as there is much suppuration, as well as a foul odour. At first the hair falls off in patches, upon which red spots appear; from these comes serum, then pus and blood, which form scabs, among which are cracks and other sores. The dog soon becomes unwell and appears to suffer considerably, though the itching is not so intense as in the other form, so that the animal, instead of scratching, rather shakes itself; but this may be from the pain, as he objects to have the affected parts handled, whereas, in sarcoptic mange, pleasure is manifested when the skin is rubbed. After a time, emaciation and debility are very marked, and the dog becomes such a loathsome object that he is usually destroyed before he succumbs to the effects of the malady. Treatment has often been unsuccessful, but this was probably because it has not been properly conducted, or was adopted when the disease was too far advanced. The hair should be removed as close to the skin as possible, and the treatment adopted may follow that recommended for ordinary mange. A solution of chinosol (I to 100 or 150 of water) has proved effective. Another dressing is creosote and liquor potassae of half an ounce each, barley water eight ounces. Both of these dressings should be applied frequently, after the skin has been well cleaned by scrubbing with soda and hot water. Another dressing is olive oil fourteen parts, well shaken up with one part of creosote, and two parts of strong liquor potassae added; this is to be applied every third or fourth day to all the affected parts, the dog having been washed a few hours before each dressing. As a rule the treatment has to be continued for a considerable period, during which the dog's strength must be maintained by good food, to which small doses of sulphur should be occasionally added.

For bedding, red-pine shavings should be employed, in preference to anything else, and they ought to be renewed at least twice a week, the soiled shavings being burned. Precautions should be taken against the disease extending to other dogs.

Lice, fleas, and other vermin of this kind, are got rid of by cleanliness of surroundings, washing the animals with soap and warm water, and dressing the skin with any of the simpler mange applications, especially chinosol solution.

Ringworm in two forms affects the dog, though rarely; both are due to a vegetable parasite. The ordinary form presents itself in circular and always increasing patches of baldness, in which are seen broken hairs and greyish scales or crusts. There is not much irritation of the skin, though the patches are reddened, and the 66 [VETERINARY WORK dog does not appear to be seriously inconvenienced. Washing with soap and water, and painting over the places with tincture of iodine, or dressing with chinosol ointment or lotion, will readily effect a cure. The other form, known as honeycomb ringworm," has yellow crusts of a cup shape, which join each other to constitute comparatively large masses possessing a peculiar smell. These crusts usually show themselves first on or about the head. In treating the disease, all the hair and crusts must be got rid of, the skin thoroughly washed, and dressed with one of the mange applications, glacial acetic acid, or solution of corrosive sublimate.

Canker of the Ear. The skin lining the ear is not infrequently the seat of inflammation or ulceration, accompanied by a foul-smelling discharge; there is generally much pain and irritation, as the dog usually carries the head to one side, is constantly shaking it, and shows great dread and agony when the ear is handled. Sometimes there is bleeding from the ear, and when treatment is long deferred large granulations (proud flesh) spring up and obliterate the passage leading to the internal ear; deafness is the consequence. This is commonly known as internal canker, and is most frequently witnessed in longeared dogs, and especially in those which are liable to be wet-such as water dogs; though it is sometimes seen in over-fed dogs which do not get sufficient exercise, and particularly if their ears are allowed to become very dirty, or if soapy water is allowed to remain in them. For the earlier stage washing out the ears and thoroughly drying them, then dressing with chinosol lotion, or with one made by adding ten grains sulphate of zinc to an ounce of water, or two drachms liquid acetate of lead to eight ounces of water, are very serviceable. When there is much discharge and ulceration, chinosol or iodoform powder should be dusted into the ear after using the lotion. Calamine ointment makes a good dressing. It is most essential, in endeavouring to effect a cure, to prevent the dog flapping the ears, and this may be best secured by causing the animal to wear a cap fastened round the head. I have always preferred a fine net, such as ladies wear their hair in, as it keeps the ears confined without heating them.

External canker is merely an injury to the outside of the ear or a slight eruption that soon becomes ulceration; it is usually towards the tip of the ear, and is most frequent in long-eared dogs. Either of the above lotions, or a weak solution of corrosive sublimate, should be applied frequently and the head-net worn. Sometimes a soft painful swelling appears suddenly inside the ears of certain dogs, and the pain causes them to keep continually shaking the head, which makes the swelling still larger. It is produced by injury, and the tumour contains blood, a portion of which may be in the form of a clot. An opening or long slit should be made in the lowest or most dependent part, so that all the contents will drain away, and, to keep the wound open, the edges may be touched with caustic, or a piece of lint inserted for a short time. The interior should be dressed with chinosol lotion, and the dog made to wear the head-net until the part is healed.

GENERAL DISEASES.

Distemper. The most serious, as it is the most common disease to which dogs are exposed, is that known as "distemper," which, attacking all varieties, is most fatal to well-bred, delicate dogs, and especially to puppies. It is a most infectious and contagious fever, being due to a microbe, and can be communicated not only by actual contact of healthy with diseased dogs, but by means VETERINARY WORK] of almost every conceivable medium-even through the air for a certain distance. It is maintained and spread solely by the microbe, and cannot be spontaneously developed; though bad or improper food and insanitary conditions may favour its reception and extension. Some persons believe that every dog should have it, and dogs are often exposed to the contagion purposely, in order that they may acquire it and so have done with it. This is a great mistake, as there is no necessity whatever for a dog to have such a dangerous and damaging disease; on the contrary, everything should be done to avert it. There is no doubt, however, that if a dog gets the disease and recovers, he generally enjoys immunity from another attack, as is the case in several other specific fevers; but this rule does not always hold good, for I have known of dogs being infected twice. The malady would appear to be special to the canine species, as I am not aware of its having been conveyed to any others. It is such a serious disease, and is so often fatal or followed by grave sequelæ, as well as accompanied in many cases with troublesome complications, that on an outbreak the advice of an expert should be obtained. The symptoms are generally those of catarrh; in from one to two weeks after exposure to infection there is discharge from the nose and eyes, which are inflamed; shivering, sneezing, and cough; fever, listlessness, and depression, with the loss of appetite and much thirst-sometimes there is vomiting. The animal seeks warmth, and does not care to move. There is a tendency to constipation, though in young dogs there is often diarrhea, the fæces being streaked with blood.

The loss of condition is rapid, and extreme debility soon becomes manifest, especially if diarrhoea with ulceration of the bowels sets in.

The nervous system only too frequently participates in the disorder, and this is shown by the occurrence of epileptic fits and convulsions or paralysis. In the course of the disease, in very many cases, the front of the eye (cornea) undergoes ulceration. There is often a pustular skin eruption. The complications are bronchitis, pneumonia, or liver disorder. The disease runs its course in two or three weeks, and little can be done to shorten this period; the chief thing to be observed is to nurse and maintain the strength of the patient most carefully. Cleanliness must be attended to, and at the same time the dog must be kept warm and comfortable; the diet should be meat broth or beef tea, egg, or finely chopped raw meat, and if it is not taken voluntarily, the animal must be fed with it. Small quantities of brandy must be given at short intervals; or three to five grain doses of quinine in a tablespoonful of port wine. The nose and eyes are to be kept clean by gently sponging them with warm water and milk; for the eyes, two or three drops of a lotion of sulphate of zinc may be dropped into them after cleaning them.

When recovery is taking place, from twenty or forty drops of tincture of gentian may be given three or four times a day.

But, as may be readily understood, prevention of distemper is all-important, and it is to be remembered that it is one of those scourges which can be completely extirpated by preventive measures. These are: keeping the diseased, or those which have been in contact with them, rigidly isolated until all danger of communicating the infection has passed away; disinfecting or destroying everything which has been in actual contact with or in proximity to the diseased, and not allowing people who have been with them to go near healthy dogs. The greatest cleanliness possible should be strictly observed. As dog shows are largely instrumental in extending the malady, every care should be taken to prevent infected dogs gaining admission to these, and sanitary measures likely to be efficacious in averting infection ought to be scrupulously adopted. Rheumatism is not infrequent among dogs, especially sporting ones, and is due to exposure to cold and damp, particularly in their dwellings.

It is most prevalent during the winter and spring.

It may be acute or chronic-most frequently the latter, and though the joints may be involved, it is generally the muscles which are the seat of inflammation.

In the acute form there are all the signs of fever, with those of pain in the affected part.

Should this be in the loins, constituting "lumbago," there is stiffness in the hind extremities, and often the animal walks as if partially paralysed, though he is averse from movement; the back is arched, and so painful on manipulation that the creature whines or screams; while the abdomen feels hot and is tender on pressure.

Constipation is a constant symptom. When the muscles of the shoulders are affected-"kennel lameness" or "chest founder "-the pain is as great on movement or in handling, while the lameness is of course limited to the fore limbs.

When the joints are affected, they are swollen, painful, and hot. In chronic rheumatism there is no fever, but the joints are enlarged and make a clicking sound on movement; the animal is stiff, and often whines and howls, especially at night.

Dogs affected with rheumatism should be kept dry, warm, and comfortable. In acute rheumatism a dose of purgative medicine must be administered, and the bowels afterwards kept rather relaxed. Warm water fomentations of the affected part, and, after well drying it, rubbing in a liniment made up of equal parts of belladonna, camphor, and capsicum liniments, or the acetic acid liniment prescribed for rheumatism in the horse, night and morning, will allay the pain and stiffness. When the fever runs high, the following mixture has been recommended in doses of a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful, according to the size of the dog, every six hours: salicylate of soda four drachms, tincture of colchicum three drachms, acetate of potass two drachms, bicarbonate of soda one drachm, water six ounces.

In chronic rheumatism the above liniments may be employed, and in the food may be given from three to eight drops of Fowler's solution of arsenic daily for one or two weeks at a time.

Careful attention must be paid to the diet.

Catarrh. This differs from distemper in being non-infectious, unaccompanied by prostration and high fever, and usually in rapid recovery under suitable treatment. There is sneezing, a watery discharge from the eyes and nose, with dulness, and perhaps slight cough. The body should be kept comfortable and dry; the food nourishing, and small doses of any stimulant-such as brandy and whisky, a tea- to a tablespoonful-two or three times a day.

Sore Throat. Laryngitis. These disorders are sometimes noted in dogs, and are denoted by a hard or soft cough, which is very persistent; difficulty in swallowing, with extended head, and pain on manipulation of the throat. When acute. there is generally some fever. The animal should be kept warm in a moist atmosphere, the throat fomented with warm water, or rubbed with camphorated or other stimulating liniment, and covered with cotton wool and flannel. As swallowing is difficult, an electuary, composed of one drachm of chlorate of potass rubbed up in an ounce of honey, a little of which is to be placed frequently on the tongue, is useful in allaying the irritation.

Bronchitis. This may be the result of neglected catarrh, a complication of distemper, or it may occur independently of other diseases.

It is sometimes caused by parasites. If acute, there is frequent cough, which may be dry or moist; fever, loss of appetite, attempts as if to vomit, rattling in the throat, quickened breathing, pulse increased in frequency, and debility. The dog should be kept warm in an equable temperature, with plenty of fresh air; the food must be good and easily digested, with small doses of stimulants frequently. Warm linseed-meal poultices should also be applied to the chest, and the vapour of hot water, to which a small quantity of eucalyptus oil has been added, inhaled. Doses of laxative medicine should be given at intervals.

Chronic Bronchitis is often seen in old dogs, and especially those which have been over-fed and under-exercised. It much resembles asthma in man, and is generally accompanied or preceded by indigestion. The chief symptom is a harassing cough, that comes on in paroxysms, and the breathlessness is so distressing that the animal looks as if about to succumb. However, after coughing for some time, a frothy mucus is expectorated and relief follows. Exertion develops these attacks. Little can be done in the way of cure, except in diet, which should be given in small quantities and frequently, and laxative medicine occasionally. Tonics, in the form of arsenious acid and quinine, are sometimes advantageous. Inflammation of the Lungs. This is very often a sequel or accompaniment of bronchitis, and demands similar treatment; but as it is a very serious disease, and demands special skill in order to bring about restoration to health, a veterinary surgeon should be called in to undertake this task. The same may be said with regard to pleurisy, which nearly always complicates pneumonia. Jaundice is sometimes a complication of other disorders, but in all cases the liver is disordered in its functions, or may itself be the seat of disease. The skin and eyes and mouth are tinged yellow, as is the urine; there are signs of sickness, and constipation is noted. After a time there is wasting and general unhealthiness; the right side of the body and the belly are enlarged, and the breathing becomes affected. If the liver itself is diseased, a warm linseed meal poultice may be applied over it. A half grain opium and calomel pill should be given, together with a dose of castor oil, to be followed by dilute nitrohydrochloric acid in ten to fifteen drop doses every three or four hours. The diet should be light, and plenty of exercise is often beneficial.

Rabies. Until this formidable disease is finally eradicated, every one possessing dogs should know its early symptoms, so as to be on their guard against it. Usually the earliest signs are changes in manner and habit. The dog is ill-tempered and aggressive, particularly towards other dogs; he seeks retirement, or wanders away from home; his appetite is depraved, and he has a tendency to gnaw wood-work and swallow all kinds of foreign matter; he snaps at imaginary objects, and there is a peculiar alteration in his voice when he barks or howls; he has no dread of water. though he may be unable to swallow it; at a certain stage of the disease, in some cases, the muscles of the lower jaw become paralysed and the mouth remains open, while the eyes appear to squint; saliva often dribbles from the mouth; the gait is slouching. In countries in which the disease exists, and especially when it is prevalent, any change in the usual habits or manners of the dog as above described, should at once excite suspicion, and cause the animal to be at least care- [VETERINARY WORK fully secured until his condition can be assuredly determined.

Worms.-Dogs are perhaps more infested with worms than any other of the domestic animals, a circumstance due to their habits. The bowel worms are of two kinds-tape and round worms.

The tape worms are flat, as their name implies, and they are in segments or joints, each of which can have an independent existence and propagate, as it contains male and female generative organs; these segments are cast off at a certain stage of development, and expelled from the body of the dog, to be taken up by some other creature and become a parasite in it. There are several kinds of tape worm, but their description would be of little value to the amateur. They are all more or less injurious to the animal infested with them, and though in all cases the signs of injury may not be equally apparent, yet it is desirable in every instance of such infestation to destroy these parasites as soon as they are detected. They, in the majority of cases, cause general unthriftiness, depraved appetite, bowel derangement, indigestion, convulsions, and in young dogs they retard growth. Perhaps the best remedy for all tapeworms is areca nut in doses of from half drachm to two drachms, according to the size of the dog. Or half a drachm of this powder and the same quantity of liquid extract of male fern in combination, mixed in an ounce of milk, makes an effective dose. After this has been given, a dose of purgative medicine-castor oil is safe and convenient-should be administered. The fluid male fern can be given alone, and it is to be had in capsules, which are convenient for administration. Oil of turpentine in doses of from one to three drachms mixed with three or four times the quantity of oil or milk, is a handy and prompt remedy. a Round worms are not so injurious as tapeworms, but they often cause much annoyance; in puppies they frequently give rise to convulsions and death. Santonine, in doses of from two to ten grains, mixed up in a full dose of castor oil, generally causes their expulsion. The oil of turpentine, as above, is also useful in this direction. Tonic medicine-the best of which is perhaps powdered sulphate of iron in two to four grain doses given in milk twice a day for four or five days should be given afterwards.

Poisoning.-Dogs are frequently poisoned accidentally or maliciously, and if remedies are at hand, death may be averted.

Strychnine is frequently the poison from which they suffer, and if the dose has been large, death from general convulsions, in the form of intense cramp, is not long delayed. If sulphate of zinc is at hand, a dose of from ten to thirty grains may be given as an emetic in a wineglassful of water if the poison has been quite recently swallowed. When the spasms have set in, the dog should be kept partially under the influence of chloroform, which is administered by inhalation, a small quantity at a time being placed on cotton wool, which is held close to the dog's nose; the dog is placed on his chest and held in that position. The treatment must be continued until the spasms have subsided; then extract of belladonna --eight to ten grains in solution-can be administered by the mouth. Hydrocyanic acid, in minute doses-ten drops in water-may be given occasionally.

Apomorphin administered hypodermically, in one-eighth of a grain dose, has also been given to induce immediate vomiting, followed by the inhalation of half a drachm of nitrate of amyl at short intervals; this was succeeded by two draughts of chloral hydrate in solution, ten grains in each draught, an hour elapsing before each WAPITI] dose. Recovery has resulted from this treatment.

Carbolic acid is sometimes a cause of poisoning, either when absorbed through the skin or taken in by the mouth. It produces great depression, heart failure, and convulsions. Its presence is indicated by its odour. Stimulants and douching with cold water until the convulsions cease have been recommended.

Arsenic, antimony, corrosive sublimate, and other mineral poisons, are sometimes taken by or given to dogs, and if the quantity is sufficiently large they induce severe vomiting, diarrhœa, and inflammation of the bowels, with blood-tinged fæces. Until the nature of the poison can be ascertained a suitable antidote cannot be given; but, in the meantime, some relief may be afforded by giving the poisoned animals plenty of milk or white of egg, or both combined. An emetic of sulphate of zinc may be given immediately after the poison is taken, if that opportunity be afforded. For arsenic the best antidote is freshly prepared peroxide of iron. For antimony, strong boiled tea infusion has been recommended, the dose being a small cupful.

G. FLEMING.

WAPITI (Cervus canadensis). - The wapiti is the lordliest of all the true deer; and among all the beasts of the chase there is none more stately or more beautiful, and none which yields a finer trophy to the hunter. It is essentially a gigantic Scotch stag, or, rather, the stag and the wapiti are the extreme forms of several of the red deer type, which succeed one another in tolerably regular gradation as we pass from west to east through temperate portions of Europe, Asia, and North America.

Habitat. The white hunters throughout its range invariably call the wapiti "elk," because this was the name given to it by the settlers, who first encountered it near the Atlantic coast a couple of centuries ago.

Formerly no game animal of North America, except the common or white-tailed deer, was so widely distributed as the wapiti; for though its habitat was, generally speaking, the same as that of the bison, it extended further west and further east.

It abounded throughout the Alleghany ranges in the middle of the eighteenth century, and was very plentiful between them and the Mississippi as late as the Revolutionary War. Like other large game, however, it vanished with melancholy rapidity before the oncoming of the riflebearing settler. By the beginning of the last century it had become practically extinct in most regions east of the Mississippi, except in some spots just south of the Great Lakes and in a small stretch of the Pennsylvania mountains, where the last individuals lingered until after the close of the Civil War. During the first half of the nineteenth century, wapiti abounded on the great plains; and all the earlier explorers bore witness to the abundance of the great herds, though they VOL. IV were not found in such incredible myriads as were the bison. Being conspicuous animals, which could often be run down with a good horse, they were killed off much sooner than deer or antelope. Like the bison, they were practically exterminated from the plains early in the eighties, excepting in an isolated tract here and there. They are now limited to the wooded mountains of the Rockies and the Cascades, where they are in places still very abundant.

Indeed, there are parts of western Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, and Washington where they are almost as plentiful as ever.

Faldwell 1898 WAPITI.

Characteristics. - The wapiti is highly polygamous, and during the rut the master bulls gather great harems about them, and do fierce battle with one another, while the weaker bulls are driven off by themselves.

At this time the bulls are comparatively easy to approach, because they are very noisy, incessantly challenging one another by night and day. Settlers and hunters usually speak of their challenge as "whistling," but this is a very inadequate description. The challenge consists of several notes, first rising and then falling. Heard near by, especially amid unattractive surroundings, it is not particularly impressive, varying in tone from a squeal to a roar, and ending with grunts; but at a little distance it is one Z of the most musical sounds in nature, sounding like some beautiful wind instrument. Nothing makes the heart of a hunter leap and thrill like the challenge of a wapiti bull, as it comes pealing down under the great archways of the mountain pines through the still, frosty, fall weather; all the more if it be at night, under the full moon, and if there is light snow on the ground.

Methods of Pursuit. - Doubtless the most exciting way to follow the wapiti was on horseback in the old days. Then the mounted hunter pursued him either with dogs or without, and in the latter case trusted to get alongside and kill him with a revolver-shot. The great size of the quarry was such that only the largest and most powerful dogs could in any way interfere with its flight.

Nowadays, however, wapiti must be generally killed by still-hunting, and the rifle has of need supplanted horse and hound.

To me, still-hunting the wapiti has always been amongst the most attractive of sports.

It cannot be said to be as difficult as the chase of the big-horn, and it is free from the almost intolerable fatigue attendant upon clambering over mountain-tops after the white goat; but there is plenty of exercise about it if one hunts faithfully. Usually the scenery is very grand, for the wapiti are found scattered through the glade-broken forests which clothe the rolling mountain sides, and they have a habit of occasionally standing and even lying on bare, jutting look-out points on the edges of cliffs, from which one can see, as far as the eye can reach, nothing but vast stretches of lake dotted, wooded wilderness. Often when I have killed a wapiti bull early in the morning, or at least with plenty of daylight ahead, so that there was no hurry about reaching camp, I have sat down by the dressed carcase, and literally for hours have gazed across deep valleys and at giant mountains, whose wild and savage beauty was unmarred by the least trace of man; then, with the tongue at my belt, I would start off to camp, timing myself so as to get there just as dusk came on and the blaze of the pitchy pine-stumps shot upward through the darkness.

In the old days I not infrequently killed wapiti near my ranch on the Little Missouri.

Even when I first went there, however, in the early eighties, wapiti had become scarce, while the black-tail deer still swarmed. I do not think I ever got a wapiti in one day's hunt from the ranch house. We always went with a wagon to some likely spot and began the hunt early the following morning.

At the ranch house we depended for our fresh meat exclusively on our rifles; and on these occasions I was usually hunting for [WAPITI the table. I never got a wapiti head of any size on the Little Missouri.

My chief hunting after wapiti has been done in north-western Wyoming and western Montana, and there I got many splendid trophies. The largest head I ever killed had antlers fifty-six inches in length, and this is well above the ordinary size; nevertheless, in wholly exceptional cases they grow eight or ten inches and even a foot longer. Nothing can exceed the splendid massive symmetry of such a head.

On a trip in the mountains after elk it is usual to go with a pack-train, for the country is too rough for wagons, and yet not so utterly impracticable as to forbid the use of horses, which is often the case in the haunts of sheep, goat, and caribou.

With a pack-train many comforts can be carried along, such as tents, and an ample supply of bedding, and of small luxuries for the table. In consequence it is far pleasanter, especially on a long trip, to have a pack-train, for although any good hunter will always rough it as much as is necessary to get the game, still it is a pleasant thing to be comfortable when the chance offers. In fine weather a man can lie out in the open with impunity, and indeed I personally much prefer it to lying in a tent; but in the rain a man who has to lie out in the open is sure to have a rather dismal time. In the plains country, long-continued rains are rare, and, with a stout tarpaulin in which to wrap the bedding, a man can afford to disregard the chances of bad weather; but sometimes in the mountains it will rain every day for a considerable time, and then the discomfort of coming back to camp at night to pass a wretched hour standing up in a downpour, or couching under a leaking brush lean-to, with the certainty of damp blankets for the night, takes away a good deal of the fun of hunting.

On the other hand, with a comfortable tent, a great deal of the fun of the hunting trip is after nightfall. To come back from a long all-day's walk, thoroughly tired, yet not so done up as to be unable to appreciate rest and a hot supper, to sit around the blazing pine logs after the meal of elk-venison, grouse, trout, and flap-jacks, and to turn into one's warm sleeping bag as the ice begins to skim the water in the buckets, make up, in the aggregate, as much real comfort as often comes to any man.

From the point where one meets the packtrain it is now usually several days' journey into good elk-country, for the skin- and meat-hunters butcher all game, the haunts of which are accessible from railroads.

Once on the hunting grounds, it is easy to determine what are the chances for elk. If they are at all numerous, their trails will WAPITI] be seen everywhere, making well-beaten paths through the forests, while the edges of the streams and marshy hollows will be trodden up by the great round foot-prints, like those of two-year-old cattle. If it is during the rut, bulls are certain to be heard challenging one another. Later in the season, when there is apt to be snow on the ground, the trails are of course more distinct than ever.

In fairly wild country, there is less need in the case of wapiti than in the case of deer for being abroad early in the day.

Although fond of taking siestas, they feed irregularly throughout the day; and during the rut the bulls are rarely still for any length of time, either by night or by day.

In wild weather the herds are particularly active, although they are also then rather more difficult to get at, seeming to be more on the alert than when the weather is still and warm.

In hunting wapiti, some use can be made of glasses, but not nearly as much as in the case of sheep or goats, for there is too much forest. If it is rutting time, the bull can usually be placed by the sound of his challenge; otherwise his tracks must be diligently searched for, or else the hunter simply works his way cautiously through and across likely places until he comes upon some sign of his quarry. It is always necessary to go across or up wind, the nose of the wapiti being very sharp; but his eyesight is not particularly good-hardly as good as that of a deer, and not to be compared to that of a prong-buck or mountain sheep. In very wild places wapiti bulls, especially during the rut, are so bold and self-confident that it is easy to stalk and kill them; but where they have been much hunted they become as wary as a deer, and it is then only their superior size, and the greater eagerness with which hunters follow them, that places them at a disadvantage in the struggle for life when compared with their smaller kinsfolk. Owing to its bulk, the wapiti is much more easily seen, and the hunter will of course follow it under circumstances in which he would abandon the chase of a deer, because the trophy is so much more valuable. Moreover, the wapiti lives in ground that favours the still hunter. The moose and the white-tail deer dwell in forests so dense that the difficulty of approaching them is very great; for it is almost impossible for any white man not to make some noise in slipping through the bushes and over the dead sticks and dried leaves. The sheep and goat are protected by the inaccessible nature of the lofty cliffs in which they delight. But the wapiti, like the black-tail deer, is not a beast of the high crags, nor, by preference, of the dense THE TATE LIBRARY, BRIXTON, S.W. woods. The ground in which he delights is the broken rolling hill-country, where groves and glades alternate, just as the black-tail loves the open hillsides, riven by gorges clad with ash and cedar. In consequence the wapiti and black-tail can be readily seen at quite a distance; whereas the moose and white-tail live in cover where it is hard to catch a glimpse of anything thirty yards off; and, moreover, when once seen, the wapiti and black-tail can generally be stalked without much difficulty, for there is always cover on rough hillsides and among patches of scattered timber. Under like conditions, however, I do not think that there is very much difference in point of wariness and keenness of sense among these four different beasts. Undoubtedly the moose and the white-tail are a little more clever, and the white-tail especially is the most cunning of all; but those wapiti and black-tail which do haunt the deep woods are nearly as hard to get at as their two slyer relatives; at any rate, the difference is not great enough to warrant the hunter in taking liberties. Of course, in places which hunters have not yet penetrated and there are a very few such in out-of-the-way mountain regions even nowadays all four beasts are absurdly tame; but they never show the stupid self-confidence of the white goat.

Though the wapiti is so large and powerful, it is not a very tough beast, and succumbs to a bullet as readily as a deer or antelope. In shooting it I have usually carried a 45.75 or 45.90 Winchester; but the small calibre smokeless powder cartridges, using a bullet with the nose of naked lead, will probably become more and more in use among the hunters who follow them.

The flesh of the wapiti is to my taste more delicious than that of almost any other wild game; though it must be eaten hot, as the fat tends to form tallow as soon as cool.

The wapiti is easily domesticated, at least to the extent of being hardy and breeding well when kept in parks; but as soon as the bulls lose the dread of man which they have when wild, they become very dangerous in the rutting season. There are several aberrant forms of wapiti, including one that dwells in the great Tule swamps of California. There is also an entirely distinct form with its centre of abundance in the Olympic mountains of Washington and in Vancouver Island. This form, which Dr. C. Hart Merriam has done the present writer the honour of naming after him, Cervus roosevelti, is larger than the common form. with the head in winter black instead of dark brown; and the antlers have a straight beam, ending in a cluster of erect points Z2 34° instead of the long terminal prong with backward sweep, so characteristic of the ordinary form. The ordinary wapiti in the north reaches west to the Rocky Mountains. There then comes a great space where no wapiti are found at all until the coast ranges of the Pacific are reached, and the recently described species appears.

From the days of Lewis and Clark these wapiti of the Pacific coast have been known, but they have always been confounded with the ordinary form, from which they are as distinct as is the Columbia black-tail deer from the ordinary black-tail or mule-deer of the Rockies and the great plains.

For the Asiatic representatives of the wapiti, see the article DEER.

THEODORE ROOSEVELT.

WHIPPET - RACING. - In the last fifteen years the pastime of whippet-racing for stakes has increased in public favour to an enormous extent, and spread from the North of England, which was its original home, to the South-where the principal ground is at Manor Park, E.and to Scotland, where the Portobello Ground, Edinburgh, is one of the best arranged in the United Kingdom. There students of the University and many ladies enter their dogs to compete with those trained by the miners and operatives of the Lothian district, and exciting contests for considerable sums of money take place. [WHIPPET-RACING applied to it by the soi-disant "Humanitarians" of a spurious sport," for though the "cruelty" practised upon boxed rabbits is a negligible quantity, it is certain that the released "bunny" is not given a sportingnor, indeed, any chance at all-of saving its life.

Whippet-racing, then, has a future before it, not alone because it affords a very interesting occupation in the breeding and training if a pretty and intelligent class of dog, but also because it gives the average working man an opportunity of backing his fancy in the betting rings, which are as inseparable adjuncts of dog-racing grounds as they are of racecourses.

In appearance the whippet resembles a greyhound in miniature, and sometimes approaches him too closely in size and weight, varying in the latter respect from 10 lb. to 40 lb. The difference is sought to be corrected by handicapping, but the sport would be improved were dogs over 20 lb. debarred from competing against the smaller and lighter varieties. The whippet is a manufactured dog, produced from the greyhound and the terrier, with probably an infusion of Italian greyhound blood. The latter produces the wheel-back; the ordinary greyhound, grace and speed; while the terrier trait is exhibited in its fondness for hanging to and worrying the "rag" to which it is trained to race.

Whippet-races are run on the flat on a THE START OF A RACE.

Saturday is the dog-racing day in Scotland, but in the South of England Sunday is more usually selected.

One cause of the advancement of whippet-racing may be sought in the decline of rabbit-coursing in deference to popular opinion that it nearly merits the description [Photograph by Sport and General. cinder or brick-dust track, 200 yards in length, and divided lengthwise by low boards, which prevent the competing dogs from crossing or fouling each other, while permitting an uninterrupted view of the contest. They are run in heats of six or seven dogs in each, the competitors being مت WHIPPET-RACING] distinguished by racing collars of different colours-red, white, blue, yellow, green, and black-the same order being observed throughout. The winning colour is hoisted on the telegraph-board at the end of each heat and of the final. The judge is placed in a sunk box on the winning-mark, so as to bring his eyes more nearly to the level These by their respective runners up." runners have preceded the dogs up the course, and the signal to start must not be given before they have all passed the winning post, and the race cannot be declared fair if they have not all passed the overmark at the moment at which the first dog breasts the tape.

THE RACE. of the competitors, and the first thirty yards of the track are marked with handicap lines, starting from the scratch line at the back.

Whippets are handicapped according to weight and previous performances, and the name of the dog, colour, owner, and handicap is entered on the race-card in the following manner :- HEAT ONE.

R. Mr. Robinson's f. d. Peter W. Mr. Wardell's b. w. d. Old Father.

I 7 B. 12 Y. 14 G. 21 Mr. Hide's b. w. d. Doge Mr. White's bl. w. d. Blue Funk Mr. Noble's b. w. b. Thoughtless Beauty Bk. Mr. Rice's b. b. Hannah. lbs. st. 192 19 20 20 17 26 16 31 134 33 12 40 By this it will be seen that Mr. Robinson's fawn dog with the red ribbon starts at scratch, though his handicap is 19 yards, and the others start at distances reduced in proportion from their respective handicaps.

Generally speaking, bitches are faster than dogs and are more severely handicapped in consequence. A fifteen-pound dog, for instance, gets 4 yards advantage over a bitch of the same weight.

The dogs are weighed in at the start of the racing and should remain inside the enclosure so long as they are left in the handicap. The clerk of the scales allows 4 ounces over the weight at which the dog is entered to run, and under some circumstances as much as 8 ounces, with 6 ounces extra in the final heat. After weighing in, the dog is taken to its handicap mark by the slipper. On the crack of the pistol the slippers simultaneously throw the dogs into their stride, and they race up the course rag" which is waved before them to a The handicapper's task is no light one, and elaborate tables are published in order to guide him in carrying it out. Notwithstanding every care, it is possible for the owner when slipping his dog to "hold" him in order to obtain a better handicap on a future occasion, and the management of a dog-racing ground has to be alive to the possibility of an unscrupulous owner stuffing his dog with pudding just before he runs, with the same intent.

The scene at a big meeting is very lively and exciting, no time being cut to waste in despatching the various heats, and the barking of the game little dogs, the shrill cries of the runners-up, the waving of rags, and fluttering of coloured ribands, coupled with the shouts of the spectators and the roar of the bookmakers, combine to render the sport very cheerful and enlivening.

The cost of the pastime is not very great.

Whippet whelps are not expensive to buy, nor do they cost much to keep. Special kennels are unnecessary unless a large string is owned by the same man, and even then they can be erected quite cheaply. As a matter of fact, one or two dogs are the usual complement of the working-man fancier, and these do as well in the house as in elaborate kennels-very often better.

Sheets are necessary, as the whippet is rather a delicate dog and liable to chills, but they only cost a few shillings, and can be made at home for even less. A boxmuzzle is another necessity, in order to prevent the dogs from picking up "trash," for they are inveterate scavengers. The entrance fee for handicaps of from £15 to £25 in value is usually only a shilling.

Training. Every owner probably has his ideas about training, and mostly carries them out himself, though in the pit districts there are men who employ their whole time as "public trainers" of whippets, their charges being very low. The dog who is meant to win a big stake is looked after as carefully and fed as daintily as ever the winner of a Waterloo Cup. It were impossible to lay down any hard-and-fast rules for the training of race-dogs, but the following instructions may serve as a guide, to be adhered to or departed from as individual experience may suggest.

Some consider that a whippet requires a month or six weeks' preparation before he can be expected to render a good account of himself in a handicap. It is understood, of course, that from early youth he has been encouraged to worry a rag at all odd moments, and it is surprising how soon he will take to what is born in the blood, for it has been mysteriously ordained that the lure for a whippet should be a cloth held by the runner." However, his physical training is another matter, and, taking into consideration the delicacy of the animal, it is often a difficult one. First, it should be ascertained that the dog is in good health, and then he should be put upon a diet of wholesome plain food:-biscuit or bread soaked in broth with an occasional boiled onion ،، [WHIPPET-RACING proaches, he is put upon the best mutton diet, and beaten eggs if necessary.

One trainer gives a course of three weeks only, and proceeds as follows:- First week. Dose with castor oil, and, if it should not seem necessary to follow this up with areca nut, feed twice a day on brown bread soaked in tea or mutton broth, and weigh the dog at the end of the week.

Second week. -Feed with brown bread soaked in beef-tea with a small piece of meat twice a day. Exercise for two miles morning and evening. Rub well, keep the feet clean, and weigh every morning.

Third week. - Feed with four ounces of grilled beef night and morning, with a teaspoonful of linseed tea on a piece of toast. For exercise a walk of a mile and a half in the morning, a short turn at mid-day. and a run on the grass in the evening. The last three mornings before the race an egg should be given with the food, and a small piece of boiled fish at night. On the day of the race, about three ounces of beef-tea and toast should be given in the morning, and a piece of lean roast beef or mutton after the first and second heat.

The whippet is a gentle-mannered and sensitive little dog, and should never require rating or the whip. Kindness and the companionship of his owner are essential to the bringing out of his best qualities on THE FINISH OF A RACE. or parsnip is the staple diet. Sometimes a new laid egg mixed with the food is advisable if the dog has been rather over-exercised. For exercise, walking smartly about five miles a day with an occasional gallop is sufficient, but the dog will do considerably more than this if taken over meadows and grass land. As the day of the race apa the track. It does not do to regard him solely as racing or money-making machine, though that, of course, is his chief end. That he is a model of speed even m more than the greyhound may be learned from the fact that he can cover a distance of 200 yards in 13 seconds of time. The terrier-blood in the breed occasionally leads to their savaging their opponents in a handi- WIGEON] cap, but when a dog is convicted of this grave offence he is promply "warned off " for life. Like greyhounds, whippets are rather given to biting and tearing each other at play or exercise, which again indicates the use of the leather box-muzzle.

The rules of whippet racing have been much improved of late years, but more WHIPPET HANGING ON TO A TOWEL AFTER A RACE. might yet be done in this way to popularise the sport among a class which everywhere, with the exception of Edinburgh, has hitherto held itself aloof from this democratic amusement. In many country places private whippet race meetings might be arranged that would afford entertainment to residents and their neighbours during the summer months, when little in the shape of sport is to be had there, and the breeding and training of these attractive pets would usefully employ many bored and unoccupied country ladies.

L. C. R. CAMERON.

WIGEON. species of wild duck (Mareca penelope), best known in the British Islands as a visitor during the winter months, when it is extremely common on most parts of the coast. Indeed, it may be doubted whether any other wildfowl, except perhaps the Brent goose, is ever seen in such flocks as those of wigeon, which resort hither in the cold weather.

Intermediate in size between the common wild duck and the teal, few birds present a handsomer appearance than the cock wigeon, thus described by Professor Newton:-"The greater part of the bill blue, forehead cream colour, head and neck chestnut, passing into pinkish grey below, and above into lavender grey, which last, produced by the transverse undulations of fine black and white lines, extends over the back and upper surface of the wings, except some of the coverts, which are conspicuously white, and shows itself again on the flanks. The wings are further ornamented by a glossy green speculum between two black bars; the tail is pointed and dark; the rest of the lower parts is white. The female has the inconspicuous coloration characteristic of her sex among most of the fresh-water ducks." Although a good many pairs may be found nesting in the north of Scotland and fewer in Ireland, the greater number retire to breed in Lapland and countries further to the eastward. Small flocks begin to arrive on the east coast about the middle of October, increasing in numbers till the middle of November, by which date there are as many probably as will be seen during the winter. They leave us about the end of February or beginning of March, although on the larger inland pools of fresh water, where they are but little disturbed, a few may linger on until April.

During the winter they afford almost unlimited sport to the wildfowler, both ashore and afloat, the greatest number being killed by the punt-shooters on such parts of the coast as afford shallow water over mud flats on which the favourite weed Zostera marina grows abundantly. 66 A large flock of wigeon is termed by wildfowl shooters a company"; a smaller number they term a "bunch." A company of wigeon, when first collecting, may be heard at an immense distance by the whistling of the drakes and purring noise of the ducks; but, when they are quietly settled and busy at feed, the only sound heard arises from the motion of their bills, which is similar to that of tame ducks.

It is a wonderful sight to observe a large company of wigeon congregating on a mud flat, the area of which is gradually becoming reduced by a flowing tide. "As the mud begins to disappear" (to quote the words of Colonel Hawker), "they will concentrate themselves on the last uncovered spot, where, as soon as the water begins to whiten the mud, thousands may be seen, literally wedged among one another, whence they are so unwilling to fly that they will seldom stir until the water actually sets them afloat." Then is the time for the wildfowler to work up to them in his punt, in which he will lie down and push or paddle towards them until near enough to get a shot. In this way an enormous number of wigeon are killed every winter on the coast.

Those who do not own a gunning punt. nor care for this particular phase of wildfowling, may sometimes enjoy excellent sport by shooting wigeon from the shore at flight time. The modus operandi is thus described by Sir R. Payne Gallwey in his excellent book, The Fowler in Ireland. "Place yourself and dog," he says, "behind a bank, looking in the direction in which the fowl will appear when making inland.

You must choose a position over which you know they cross in the morning flight.

They will return the same way and face you if posted right. Should the wind be WIGEON. against them, they will travel low over the land, just topping the banks and hills. If the wind is favourable, they skim along with extended wings, high, and often out of reach. In calm weather they are up in the sky, and can oftener be heard than seen."

It is well never to fire at fowl coming towards you; they should be taken sideways overhead, or, better still, when they have just passed. By shooting thus the shot will not glance off nor encounter the dense mass of down and feather presented by an approaching bird. In bright and early morn the flight is late and uncertain. The fowl will then straggle in at all hours up to IO o'clock, when they usually decide to visit the flats or swim above them until their food is exposed. At dawn their movements are reversed. On fine, still mornings the main body quit their haunts before it is daylight; others following later. After a boisterous night they rest on the flats, or float over them longer than usual. They are loth to face the storm, and afford a good chance to the early flighter as they fly to sea, and doubly so if forced to fly against the wind.

For flight shooting a good retriever or Irish water spaniel is indispensable, for by his aid much valuable time will be saved in recovering wounded birds and picking up the slain. [WIGEON Seeing that so good an authority on wildfowling as Folkard spells "wigeon" with a "d"-widgeon-and many writers of the present day follow his example, it may be well to state here the grounds of objection to such a practice. Etymologists are agreed that "pigeon" comes through the French from the Latin word pipio. In the same way "wigeon" comes from vipio. The old French form is vingeon and vigeon; in Anjou digeon, male, and digeonne, female.

Professor Skeat has shown that the spelling wigeon is to be found as early as 1570, and that the insertion of the "d" in the word has no more etymological significance than has the same letter in "judge," from the French juge. Hence there can be no doubt that if we spell "pigeon" without a "d" we must spell "wigeon" by the same analogy.

J. E. HARTING.

WOODCOCK. -The general characters which distinguish the different species of woodcock from the true snipes have been already pointed out in the article SNIPE, and need not be recapitulated, except in regard to the singular position of the ear, which is placed below the eye, as in the snipe.

The European woodcock (Scolopax rusticula), and the American woodcock (Philohela minor) are the two best known representatives of their kind, for they are both widely distributed, and both are much sought after by sportsmen of every country which they frequent or visit. Indeed, it may be doubted whether any game bird affords more thoroughly enjoyable sport than a woodcock, or leads the shooter into wilder or more picturesque haunts.

Licence for Shooting. It may be well to note, by the way, that although neither woodcock nor snipe come within the definition of "game," as laid down by the principal English Game Act (1 & 2 Will. 4, cap. 32), a game licence is nevertheless required for shooting them (23 & 24 Vict. cap. 90), and this applies also to quail and landrail. (See LICENCES.) Result of Protection. - Since the passing of the Wild Birds' Protection Act in 1880. many more woodcocks have remained to nest in the British Islands than used formerly to be the case. At one time the discovery of a woodcock's nest was so rare an occurrence that it was deemed worthy of record in journals devoted to sport and natural history; at the present day, there is perhaps hardly a county in the United Kingdom in which at least a few pairs do not remain to breed; and this not merely in the north, but in many of the southern counties. In Sussex, for example, Mr. Monk, of Lewes, ascertained a few years ago, from statistics After Archibald Thorburn.

Archibalt Thorburn- WOODCOCK.

THE TATE LIBRARY, BRIXTON, S.W.

WOODCOCK] carefully collected from the owners of game coverts and their keepers, that not less than 200 nests might be found in the eastern division alone. In view of this fact it will be readily perceived how difficult, if not impossible, it is to determine whether a socalled "early woodcock" is really a fresh arrival from across the North Sea, or has been here, perhaps bred here, during the previous summer.

Transport of Young.- The fact that woodcocks carry their young from the dry woods in which they are hatched to the moist feeding-grounds has long been known to naturalists. They are transported to and fro either grasped by the feet of the parent bird, or pressed between the legs and the breast. For fuller details and overwhelming evidence of the fact, see a long article on the subject by the present writer in The Zoologist for 1879 (pp. 433-440), with an illustration by the famous animal painter, Joseph Wolf.

Migration. It is of course well known that the great majority of woodcocks which are met with in the British Islands during the autumn and winter are visitors from the continent. In Northumberland these birds have been observed to arrive in the greatest numbers in hazy weather with little wind, and that blowing from the north-east. In Norfolk it has been remarked that the nocturnal migrations of the woodcock are influenced rather by the wind than the moon, and they have been found quite abundant on that coast after a dark night, with the wind from the north or the north-east. In Yorkshire and Lincolnshire some of the largest flights have been known to arrive about October 10th or 12th with a strong east wind, fog, and drizzling rain. At Spurn Point sixty have been shot in one morning after fresh north-east wind a during the previous night with drizzling rain, and at Skegness forty-three were shot in the same day under similar conditions of wind and weather. In Cornwall the first flights generally arrive about the second week in October, and with the wind at any point from south to east. In one year, however, a continuance of north-east winds to the end of October, with a waning moon, brought a large flight of woodcocks to the Land's End district. One gun there killed fifty-four in a week, and another thirtynine in a day. The Annual Reports published by a Committee of the British Association appointed to collect information in regard to the migration of birds from the keepers of the lighthouses and lightships, furnish some curious and interesting statistics concerning the arrival of woodcocks in autumn, and establish the following facts. Their migration takes place chiefly at night. Birds which strike the lanterns of the lighthouses are generally picked up between midnight and daybreak. When a large number come over together, as they often do, they fly with the wind; but, as an exception, single birds have been seen to arrive with the wind against them. During the autumn migration comparatively few are observed at stations on the west coast of Scotland, while during the spring migration few are seen on the WOODCOCK. east coast, and this applies to England as well as to Scotland.

Sir Condition on Arrival, and Weight. It is generally supposed that woodcocks on their arrival here are lean and out of condition, but this is not always the case. R. Payne Gallwey states that out of hundreds which he examined during the exceptionally long and severe winter of 1880-81, only a dozen were small and poor birds; and at the end of the frost he picked out three birds, each of which weighed exactly 16 oz., a fourth weighing 184 oz.

These must have been exceptionally fine birds, for the average weight of a woodcock may be set down at 12 oz. or thereabouts.

Sexes and Alleged Races. It has not been ascertained whether the sexes travel apart, as is known to be the case with certain small passerine birds; but some persons maintain there are two distinct races of woodcock, one large and light-coloured, the other small and dark, which keep apart and arrive independently. At Kilnsea, near the Spurn, it is said that a south-east wind always brings large grey or light-coloured woodcocks, and a north wind small and redcoloured birds, and this is reported from other parts of the coast. (See Fifth Report on Migration, 1887, p. 51, note.) According to Professor Newton, however (Dict. Birds, p. 1042, footnote), those who have taken much trouble about the matter are unanimous in declaring against the existence of two species" or even "races." In other words, the difference observable in size and colour is due to individual variation and age, and not to specific distinctness. 66 It has often been asserted that the sexes of the woodcock may be distinguished by the appearance of the first primary, in which, it is said, the outer web is of a uniform colour in the female, and has white or buffy-white zig-zag markings on a darker ground in the male. This, however, is a fallacy. We have seen the first primary of a woodcock which had the markings referred to for half its length only, the remaining half being quite uniform in colour. Thus no dependence can be placed on this character, which varies not with sex, but with age; nor can any constant character be pointed out as an invariable indication of sex.

White and Pied Varieties. Occasionally the variation of colour is carried to excess, and woodcocks are met with having more or less white about their plumage, giving them a pied appearance, while more rarely an albino or nearly pure white specimen is shot and preserved as a curiosity. See an article on "White Woodcocks," by the present writer, in The Field of November 20, 1897.

J. E. HARTING.

WRESTLING. In Great Britain, wrestling, although much practised in days gone by in Cumberland and Westmorland, Lancashire, Devon, and Cornwall, and in some parts of Ireland, cannot in any sense be considered a national pastime, or one that is cultivated so generally throughout the land as the sister science, boxing. There exists, however, SO strong an affinity between wrestling and boxing that the one may be considered a useful and natural adjunct to the other. But, in order to make the pastime generally popular, it is the opinion of many that a style on the "catch hold" principle should be generally adopted as the recognised English method. Against such uniformity, however, there are many and, apparently, unsurmountable obstacles.

At the same time, the Lancashire style certainly enjoys the greatest and most widely spread popularity. At the present time we are lost in the maze of a variety of systems, to wit-Græco-Roman, Cumberland and Westmorland, Lancashire (catch as catch can), Cornish and Devon, Scottish, Irish, German, Swiss, Japanese, Indian, &c. Without doubt the Græco- [WRESTLING Roman fashion of wrestling is productive of some excitement when witnessed by the uninitiated; but apart from that it may be asked, What useful purpose does it serve?" As the struggle proper does not commence until both the competitors are on all fours on the ground, it is useless in a hand to hand encounter, where fair play is insisted upon; even as a means of self defence it is inferior to other styles, yet it is the one almost exclusively prevailing in all European countries with the exceptions of the United Kingdom and Turkey. The peculiarities of the style will be easily appreciated from the following brief summary of the rules:- No holds below the waist are permissible, and catching hold of the legs or any form of tripping is not allowed. Striking with the feet or locking an opponent's legs with one's own for purposes of defence are barred. In throws from the hip there must be no offensive action with the legs or thighs. The locking of the fingers is forbidden. A fall 1S obtained when wrestler's shoulders are forced to the mat together, and usually pin falls obtain; this means that the shoulders must be pinned to the mat for an appreciable period-a ruling which confers a great advantage on superior weight and physical strength. a The majority of the prominent Continental experts in this style are men of immense bulk, and, in consequence of the restrictions necessarily imposed by the rules, contests are often very protracted, frequently extending into hours. Few Græco-Roman wrestlers ever attempt the mastery of other styles of wrestling, and fewer still succeed. The one notable exception, Georges Hackenschmidt, owed his successes under catch-as-catch-can rules to his great weight and overpowering strength.

On the other hand, but a very small minority of wrestlers in other styles who have attempted Græco-Roman have gained honours, though at one period-about 1885 Lancashire wrestler named Tom Cannon was admitted to be at least the equal of any of the Continental champions.

Although introduced into America and Australasia, as well as Great Britain, the style has never obtained in these countries its European popularity. -a Its most surprising feature is that tripping should be prohibited. Tripping is the very essence of the art of wrestling; without the chips and other manœuvres peculiar to the science of English wrestling, there remains very little beyond weight and strength to battle with; for scarcely any real work takes place until both men are on the ground, where the object of each is to obtain the uppermost position.

WRESTLING] Some years ago, when Paul Pons, the gigantic Frenchman, and the equally brawny Memisch of Turkey, met in a real contest, Græco-fashion, on the Canterbury stage, the men both got down on the carpet early in the struggle and sat on the floor for two hours and fifty-five minutes, neither daring to get on his feet, and a draw had to be declared, no fall being recorded. This system, dignified by the high sounding Græco-Roman title (though it bears but the faintest resemblance to the wrestling of either the ancient Greeks or Romans), was foisted upon the British public in 1870, when the French giants, Le Boeuf and Dubois, contended with the Cumbrian champions, William Jameson and Richard Wright, at the Agricultural Hall. The English and French champions subsequently visited most of the principal wrestling towns in the North, but the game was generally looked on with disfavour except in a few of the leading wrestling resorts in Lancashire.

Instead of being the art of standing up against an adversary, it is simply the art of getting down in a certain position, so as to avoid being thrown a fair back fall. Tripping is the very backbone of the science of wrestling, and a system that does not teach a man to retain his perpendicular in the face of attack is of very little service, either as an athletic exercise, or as a means of selfdefence.

Ground wrestling, though productive of much skilful work under Lancashire rules, is apt to become tedious under the limitations imposed by the Græco-Roman style, and satisfies few besides Continentals.

When Greece took a leading position in the promotion of wrestling and other athletic exercise, ground wrestling was indulged in only to a limited extent. In the celebrated contest, for instance, between Ajax and Ulysses, we are told that the champions endeavoured to "keep on their legs," and when Ulysses plied the outside stroke, supplemented by the back heel, and fell on the top of his opponent, the contest was over and the populace satisfied.

Cumberland and Westmorland Rules. - On taking hold with the arms round the body, the right arm underneath and the left above, the wrestlers stand chest to chest, each placing his chin on his opponent's right shoulder and grasping him round the body, each placing his left arm above the right of his antagonist.

When both men have got hold, and are fairly on their guard, the play commences, and, with the exception of kicking, they are allowed to use every legitimate means of throwing each other.

If either party break 'his hold, that is, lose his grip, though not on the ground, and the other still retains his hold, the one so leaving loose shall be the loser.

If either man touch the ground, with one knee only or any other part of his body, though he may still retain his hold, he shall not be allowed to recover himself, but shall be deemed the loser.

If both fall to the ground, the man who is first down, or falls under the other, shall be the loser, but if they fall side by side, or otherwise, so that the umpires cannot decide which was first on the ground, it shall be what is technically called a dog-fall," and shall be wrestled over again. 66 Should, as occasionally happens, each wrestler slip his arms over his opponent's head, the hands not coming apart, a fresh hold is taken; but if only one of the contestants do so, he must continue to wrestle, though at a disadvantage.

The Cumberland and Westmorland Hold. In securing a grip, the best way is CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND STYLE: TAKING HOLD. to make of the hands a couple of hooks, by placing all the fingers of one hand into the other hand held in the same way, so that the back of the right hand shall press on an antagonist's back. Laying hold of one wrist with one hand, or clasping hands, are fruitless methods, as the former shortens the arms, and the latter gives an insecure grip which is easily broken.

Having obtained a good hold, make play at once while the grip is retained, and always keep the right arm well up in order to prevent an adversary from getting too low a hold.

The back heel. - The back heel is without doubt the father of all wrestling chips; in fact, every man, boy, and child in the universe naturally resorts to the back heel in the emergency of a hand-to-hand struggle.

When a wrestler gets a leg behind his opponent's heel on the outside, it is termed backheeling. Always back heel with the left leg and as near the ground as possible. Those learning wrestling in the Cumberland and Westmorland style-indeed, in any other style where tripping is recognised--should commence their study of the art by getting proficient in the back heel, which is also a saving measure, for when a wrestler is in danger of being lifted from off his feet or swung round, the insertion of the back heel often brings about the downfall of an antagonist. Again, when a wrestler feels he is being back heeled, he should slacken his hold and lean forward; if he once allow himself to be pushed back, over he must go. Finally, the back heel should not be taken out when once inserted, especially against a long legged man, who is always a dangerous opponent.

The outside stroke (left leg). This was the favourite chip of George Steadman, late champion of England. The best way of using it is to twist your antagonist suddenly to the left, at the same time striking him with the left foot against the outside of his right ankle, as near the ground as possible.

This, with the assistance of the arms, is generally effective.

The hank. The hank, when manipulated by an expert wrestler, becomes one of the hardest and most dangerous falls of all. It is a very insidious chip, and is brought about by turning your left side to your opponent, then lock his right leg by twisting your own left leg around it from the inside, and lean, or rather fall, backwards; but be mindful that the lock is secure, and the result will be that the leverage supplied by the lock will bring about the downfall of your antagonist. only way to elude the hank is to lean forward and endeavour to obtain an improved hold. The hank is one of the most uncomfortable falls imaginable, as the wrestlers usually reach the ground glued together like a couple of planks. If the man who falls uppermost is sometimes thoroughly shaken, how, may it be asked, does the underneath individual fare?

The The inside click. -Face your opponent squarely and jerk him towards you, when he will naturally step forward with one leg.

He will try to steady himself by hanging back, which assists the expert inside clicker, who dashes in the chip, adding to it all the weight at his command. To click an opponent's right leg on the inside with your left, or his left with your right, or to use the cross click, that is, to click his right with [WRESTLING your right or his left with your left, seems easy on paper, but the manœuvre requires an enormous amount of practice, and few men excel in the movement.

The crossbuttock. The crossbuttock with the left leg is the best. Turn your left side to your antagonist, and rapidly cross both his legs with your left leg, at the same time twist your man forward with all the force at your command. A high and firm hold is necessary.

The buttock. -Few know the difference between the crossbuttock and the buttock.

In the buttock, which is the finest of all wrestling chips, the legs are not used, and therefore great strength and quickness of action are necessary. It is accomplished by turning the left side quickly round, getting your back under your opponent's stomach and throwing him bodily over. It is an unsafe chip and, although very attractivelooking in exhibition wrestling, is seldom resorted to in genuine contests. Buttocking is little known beyond the confines of Cumberland and Westmorland, as no other style of wrestling is so suitable for its display.

The hype. After securing a tight grip, step forward with the left leg, lift your [Photograph by Sport and General CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND STYLE: RIGHT LEG HYPE. opponent, and carry him to the left about a quarter of a circle, taking care the while that both his feet are free of the ground; at the same time strike the inside of his left leg with your right knee, which, if properly done, will land him plump on his back. This is the right leg hype. The left leg hype is used in the same way, only the left leg is used as the aggressive weapon. It is accounted the utmost folly for a short man to attempt to hype a wrestler much taller than himself. A short man, say of 5 feet 6 inches, cannot lift a 6 feet grenadier high enough from the ground to hype him.

The swinging hype.The swinging hype differs in no great degree from the hype WRESTLING] itself, except that it is necessary for the wrestler to swing his man after lifting him, and previous to applying the hype.

The outside click. When you find yourself being lifted, click your antagonist with your left leg, as in the back heel. Light weight men cannot attach too much importance to this chip, as it often happens that the click on the outside is the only defence they can make against superior weight and strength. Click smartly and low down, for in that consists the efficiency of the chip.

The Breast Stroke. This seems a simple move, but it is difficult to meet, and has baffled some of the best wrestlers in England. There is nothing particularly clever about the manœuvre. The assailant, however, requires great development of chest in order to accomplish it successfully.

Grasp your opponent firmly round the body, twist him suddenly to one side and then to the other with a rapid jerk. As the legs are not brought into play, the fallen one often cannot realise by what he has been thrown.

The foregoing are the principal chips used by the best Cumberland and Westmorland wrestlers of the present day. Wrestling, however, can only be learned by continual practice commenced at an early age, as it is very seldom that a man attains any proficiency who commenced to study the exercise when out of his teens. The Lancashire style (catch as catch can). The Lancashire fashion is considered by its exponents to be much in front of all other recognised systems. It is certainly the most popular of the three English methods. Unlimited action is allowed, which includes struggling on the ground, catching hold of legs, and other tactics.

Throttling and breaking arms are forbidden, but these are sometimes indulged in when the Lancastrian "birse" is up. A strong referee who knows the game thoroughly can, however, prevent any unfair tactics being employed. A man on his hands and knees must not be choked by being pulled upwards by his opponent, but either party may break fingers or arms, so long as the referee is satisfied that such took place solely in the struggle for the mastery, and not through any desire to act unfairly.

The Lancashire system is allied to the French or Græco-Roman style, the material difference being that the French method forbids tripping and catching hold of legs, whereas both are allowed under Lancashire rules. are Owing to the latitude allowed in taking hold (though certain specific holds barred and the referee has power to order the removal of any grip threatening injury), almost every throw and chip possible in every other style of wrestling is at the disposal of the catch-as-catch-can wrestler. He is able to use every chip described under the Cumberland and Westmorland system, together with many others that are made possible by permission to take hold below the waist; while all Græco-Roman throws and grips are open to him, alone or combined with leg holds. The same holds good of all offensive and defensive measures employed by the west country wrestlers.

Among the distinctive throws attached to the system are the wrist and crutch throw, the arm swing, the thigh hold with back heel or inside click, the double thigh throw, and the ankle hold. For ground work there is a variety of moves suitable for turning an opponent on his back for a fall, this being gained when both shoulders touch the ground simultaneously. Sometimes pin falls are insisted upon. Among the ground holds are the half, three quarter, bar, and locked half Nelsons, simply or combined with various leg holds; the further arm hold, the thigh hold, cradle hold, wrist and waist hold, &c. Strangle holds and the double Nelson are generally barred. Of recent years the scissors hold, which consists of getting an opponent between one's legs, and then crossing the ankles and locking the feet, has come much into favour. The flying mare is also much used by Lancashire wrestlers.

Undoubtedly there are many holds made use of among professional wrestlers in the Lancashire style which are likely to be injurious. For instance, the hammerlock, which consists of forcing an opponent's arm up his back, seizing wrist and elbow, and using the limb as a lever whereby he may be induced to turn over sideways on to his back. Among amateurs, the hammerlock, together with the scissors upon the body or head, any strangle hold, the double Nelson, and others involving possible injury to the victim, are barred by the governing body, the National Amateur Wrestling Association, which, by taking over the control of amateur wrestling and the institution of annual championships, has done much to encourage wrestling and promote its popularity.

Catch-as-Catch-Can Holds. - The wrist and crutch throw is made by seizing your opponent by his opposite wrist, stepping in, stooping, and catching him round the nearer thigh from the inside with your other hand.

A quick lift places him across your shoulders, whence he may be dropped flat on his shoulders.

The arm swing is simplicity itself. Catch your opponent's opposite wrist, step in, and swing your side in towards him, at the same moment throwing your other arm across the upper part of the captured limb. A continuation of the swing should bring your opponent on his back. 35° The thigh hold with back heel explains itself, as does the double thigh hold, your opponent in each case being thrown backwards.

LANCASHIRE AND GRÆCO- ROMAN STYLE: ARM SWING.

The half Nelson is made by thrusting a hand under your opponent's upper arm and thence to the back of his head. Thus a powerful lever is obtained for turning him on to his back. The double Nelson is simply a half Nelson applied with each arm, and, as it endangers the victim's neck, is rightly barred. The other Nelsons are but variants of the half Nelsons, and are useful grips for bringing about a fall, the principle being downward pressure of the head combined with leverage of the body. One of the deadliest of ground throws is obtainable from a crutch hold. It is usually applied when an opponent is on all fours a favourite position for the underneath man, and by no means so hopeless as it may appear. Combined with a further leg hold or a wrist hold, it is most effective.

The bridge, an important feature in Lancashire-and Græco-Roman-wrestling, must not be forgotten. It is a defensive move, and comes into play when a wrestler is in danger of being turned on his back.

As he is turned, he arches his body, which is held clear of the mat, being supported by the feet, the legs being bent at right angles, and the back of the head. Breaking bridge" is a troublesome proceeding, the bridger seizing the first opportunity to turn again on to his chest. a Although there is much ground wrestling [WRESTLING in the Lancashire style, the best play is seen when the men keep on their feet and endeavour to obtain a fall from a standing position. When pin falls obtain, however, the thrower needs to be very quick to seize the opportunity of holding his opponent's shoulders on the mat. He finds his purpose best served in most instances by going down with his man, adding his own weight to the fall.

As is indeed the case in all wrestling, quickness and agility are of the utmost importance, and a wrestler who already has a knowledge of the Cumberland and Westmorland or West Country styles is favoured with a big advantage.

The hold. Generally speaking, Lancashire wrestlers assume a half-stooping position at the commencement of an encounter, and either seize each other by the wrists or get into head holds.

The Cornwall and Devon style. In the emergency of an unexpected attack, the West Country method, as it is often called, would probably serve a man better than either the Cumberland and Westmorland or Lancashire systems, provided fair play were observed on both sides. The champions hailing from the west wrestle in strong loose linen jackets reaching to the hips and tied by linen strings in front. Catch hold above the waist and by any portion of the jacket is the rule. There are two great drawbacks connected with this style of wrestling. First, the wrestler must be attired in his jacket ere he can display any of his best points, and, second, their definition of a fall, viz., three points down, two shoulders and one or hip or two hips and one shoulder, is always productive of endless wrangling CATCH-AS-CATCH-CAN STYLE: A CRUTCH HOLD. amongst the partisans of the contending parties, a circumstance that has probably tended to wipe the practice of this exercise WRESTLING] almost out of existence. A man must be thrown flat on his back before any portion of his body touches the earth ere a decision can be given against him. Kicking, which was a speciality of the Devonians, is now abolished and the two styles amalgamated.

THE BRIDGE AND DEFENCE FOR WAIST HOLD.

The jacket is the great factor in these contests, and some astonishing throws are often brought off when a proper grip has been secured by a powerful and expert wrestler.

It is usual to grasp the jacket by the bottom corners, or, by slipping one arm under the garment and seizing the opponent's collar, a telling hold can be obtained. The wrestlers are forbidden to take hold of the two corners of an opponent's jacket for the purpose of strangling him, and they must not grasp by the drawers, handkerchief, or belt. The flying mare, the inside lock forward, and inside lock backward, and the heave, which are the best throws in this style of wrestling, may be briefly described.

First, however, comes :- The hold. The best position to assume before taking hold is to stand with the feet a trifle apart and the knees slightly bent, so as to be ready for either attack or defence.

Ground wrestling is forbidden, and a man must be thrown very decisively before a verdict can be recorded against him. A cunning wrestler, when he finds himself going down, very adroitly makes for the ground, face downwards, in order that he shall not be landed on his back. Consequently a match in this style often lasts several days.

The flying mare.-Seize your opponent's left wrist with your right hand, then quick as thought turn your back upon him, at the same time grasp his left elbow with your left hand and swing him over your back, as in the buttock, with a sudden jerk. best method of preventing this is, directly your adversary gets in front of you, to click The him from behind, at the same time clasping him round the body with your right arm.

By this means you may get in the front position, when the half-buttock should come into operation and your antagonist will, as a rule, be thrown on his face. Let it be noted that the arm grip must be such as to bring the defendant's palm uppermost, otherwise the joint may be broken. The inside locks, forward and backwards, are simply the Cumberland and Westmorland hank adapted to the exigencies of the situation. For the heave you catch your opponent's left sleeve with your left hand, duck swiftly under his right arm, and throw your right arm across his back, gripping the jacket at the left hip. His left arm is drawn across his body. With this double hold he may be lifted clean off the ground and thrown a somersault flat on his back.

Scotch Wrestling. A system has been adopted at some of the tournaments held across the Border, which is simply Cumberland and Westmorland and catch hold wrestling combined. The wrestlers commence operations in the North Country style, with the arms round the body, and the hands grasped in the ancient back hold fashion. The tussle which ensues frequently lands one or other of the competitors flat on his back, which ends the contest before the struggling on the ground has a look in. If, however, a fair back fall with two shoulders down do not result, the bout is continued on the ground. Elsewhere, however, true Cumberland and Westmorland wrestling is practised, but the most popular style is the catch-as-catch-can.

Scotsmen, as a rule, do not excel in wrestling, probably from want of practice and the necessary tuition. The only time a Scot ever took the first prize at Carlisle was in 1812, when James Scott of Canonbie, Dumfriesshire, threw all comers.

In Ireland the national style of wrestling is the collar and elbow method. Take hold of an opponent's collar with one hand and his elbow with the other. First point down, as in Cumberland and Westmorland, constitutes a fall. There is also much Lancashire wrestling practised. German wrestling is a mixture of Lancashire and Græco- Roman and therefore calls for no comment.

Turkish wrestling is principally carried out in catch-as-catch-can style. No kicking is allowed, and the throw must lay the vanquished man upon his back, so that both shoulder blades touch the ground at the same time.

In Switzerland both Græco-Roman and Lancashire wrestling are followed to some extent, but the national style is that termed "Schwingen." In this the contestants wear short strong breeches, usually of canvas.

By this garment the hold is obtained, left hand at the right hip, and right hand at the lower edge of the left breeches leg. To lift his opponent in the air and fling him to the ground is the "schwinger's" main object, and heavy falls often result.

Wrestling tournaments are held annually at various places throughout the presidency.

The peculiar style known as "Glima," the national style of Iceland, and never exhibited out of that country until 1908, when a company of Glima wrestlers gave a display at the Olympic Games held in London, is distinguished by the contestants wearing a belt round the loins to which are joined straps passing around the thighs. By this harness all holds must be taken, and the first man down is the loser. The chips and throws are strongly reminiscent of those used by Cumberland and Westmorland wrestlers, tripping, hooking, and lifting playing an important part. All striking with the leg or foot is prohibited. In Russia a somewhat similar style, known as strap wrestling, is practised, holds being taken of stout straps, like portmanteaux handles, joined to a belt at the hips, and to straps fastened round the upper thighs.

The play, however, rather resembles the Swiss than the Icelandic.

Throughout Canada and the United States various styles of wrestling, such as the collar and elbow and side hold, were at one time much favoured, but now the Lancashire "GLIMA." IT IS PERMITTED TO PLACE THE HAND ON THE GROUND TO AVOID BEING THROWN. style is that which has the greatest popularity. Græco-Roman, at one time very popular, is seldom practised to-day. What applies to America does so also to Aus- [WRESTLING tralia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

Indeed, it might almost be said that the Lancashire style is universal.

The Japanese national style of wrestling (not to be confounded with jiu-jitsu) is JAPANESE WRESTLING. also strongly suggestive of catch-as-catchcan, though no ground work enters into it. The wrestling takes place on a platform on which sand is strewn, and within a circle marked in the sand some fifteen or sixteen feet in diameter. To be pushed outside this circle, even if only a foot cross the line, is reckoned equivalent to a fall, which otherwise is identical with a fall, under Cumberland and Westmorland rules.

Very little clothes are worn by the contestants, and any holds-except by the hairare permitted. The style is known as Sumo, and contests are seldom of many minutes' duration. Japanese wrestlers are bred to the profession from four or five years of age, and all their lives undergo a system of training which converts them into veritable giants. While the average Jap will stand little over 5 feet in height, and seldom weighs above IO st., wrestlers are frequently seen as tall as 6 ft., and weighing as much as 20 st., and even more. Weight is a valuable asset in Sumo, but, despite the huge bulk of the wrestlers, they are astonishingly agile, and possess enormous strength. WALTER ARMSTRONG.

Revised by PERCY LONGHURST.

WRESTLING. INDIAN. - The Indian differs somewhat from the English wrestling, though presenting many points of similarity to the Lancashire style; ground work, however, is less in evidence. There is more art and less of brute force in it. The experts say that a man has to learn some four hundred tricks or penches, before he can be considered a Pulwan, or expert wrestler; and I fear even a clever English wrestler, unacquainted with the Indian mode, would run a great risk of coming off second best in an encounter at first. It is just possible that before he could close with his antagonist, he might find himself on his back. The sport is most popular. Great crowds collect round the arena, in which noted performers of the art-as well known to fame in India as were Sayers, Mace, Heenan, and other pugilists in Great Britain and Ireland-are about to try a fall.

Whilst the wrestlers are silent, the audience often gets wild with excitement. This is bad enough amongst the solemn Indians, but with the excitable Burmese, the excitement reaches blood heat, and the men and women bet their last rupee on their favourite, A wrestling match in India strikes a European spectator as being decidedly slow.

There is, apparently, too much patient waiting, manœuvring, and watching for an adversary's blunder. A Cornish or a Cumberland wrestler would accuse his fellow athlete of Hindostan of too much and too prolonged inaction. But the initiated appreciates the skill that is being exhibited even when the two opponents are, to all appearance, motionless as the sculptured statues they closely resemble, and he knows that the chances are in favour of many trials of that skill rather than of strength, and many changes of fortune before the contest is ended by one of the combatants being laid on his back. In general, one shoulder touching the ground is sufficient to determine a fall. There is no calling of time; from the moment the two opponents enter the arena, and until that fair and square back throw, the struggle must proceed without pause. Often there is considerable delay in getting to that grip which in English wrestling is speedily determined, if-as is the case in some countries-it be not arranged by agreement at the start.

The Indian wrestler has to be wary in his approaches to embrace his opponent, for he knows of penches, deftly dealt, jerks of his thumb and elbow by which he may be thrown before he holds his adversary at all, and therefore he indulges in much fencing at a respectful distance, and breaks the silence by slapping his biceps and his thighs with hollowed palms as he stalks round the other, looking for an opening, or hoping to find his opponent off his guard for a second. Nude, save for a scanty cloth round his loins, he is, when not too obese, a graceful object as he creeps lithely and cautiously round the ring.

At last the two get hold of each other, VOL. IV and the struggle commences. Now it looks as if one is about to be thrown, and the spectators expect to see him deposited on the broad of his back. Finding he cannot keep his foothold facing his adversary, he turns a somersault, using the body of his antagonist as a fulcrum; his legs go over the other's shoulders and he alights on the ground firm on his legs behind the other's back, and possibly with an advantage that imperils in his turn the stability of his opponent.

If one find himself hard pressed and on the point of being thrown upon his back, he anticipates this by throwing himself down with his back uppermost and face downwards, clings to the ground while his opponent sits athwart his loins, and applies all his knowledge and strength with a view to reversing the position of his foe. So they remain awhile, the one in vain exhausting himself, the other husbanding his strength and recovering his wind for a favourable moment. The crowd look on breathlessly, wondering which will win. There is a sudden change, the uppermost man has been incautious, and he who was below and all but vanquished apparently, has thrown aside his opponent, has risen from the ground and, w with a dexterous penche, has the other stretched beneath him, perhaps with shoulders that touch the ground, and so ends the conflict.

In India the profession of wrestling is largely hereditary, and in any case the performers are bred to the game from early childhood. Not a day passes without exhaustive practice-usually upon Akhara, specially prepared ground composed of moistened earth and sand. Hence comes that really wonderful skill in the art which Indian wrestlers visiting the West have demonstrated to the undoing of such athletes as have tried conclusions with them.

Their training is on lines utterly at variance with European ideas on the subject. Endurance and quickness are the qualities they seek most to acquire, and these, through free exercises or with a wooden pole, are gone through with great celerity and continued without intermission sometimes for an hour at a stretch. Though there is no acute development of muscle upon their wellcovered bodies and limbs, these men possess extraordinary strength. Though not vegetarians, they never touch alcoholic liquors, and smoke but little. Milk they believe to be productive of great physical vigour, and consume enormous quantities, warmed and spiced.

F. T. POLLOK.

YACHTING. - Yachting in general, and yacht racing in particular, are not, and never can be, popular in the sense and to AA the degree that horse racing, cricket, football, and many other sports and pastimes are popular. Circumstances do not permit of it. A yacht race is, except perhaps on the Clyde, inaccessible to the multitude.

The elements of excitement derived from betting are absent, as are also all the ordinary adjuncts of a holiday outing. Moreover, the rules and science of the game are so technical as to be appreciable only to those more or less initiated. It is a sport in which the people cannot largely participate, and consequently it cannot claim to be national in the sense of being universally popular. But in another sense it is par excellence the national sport of the United Kingdom. It is indigenous. It is the outcome of intense love of the sea-the modern expression of those roving characteristics which drove the longships of our Scandinavian ancestors from Norwegian fiords and Icelandic bays along the Western sea-board of Europe, and far up the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. It is the peaceful complement of warlike naval power, the exhibition and satisfaction in a pastime of those qualities which, under sterner circumstances, made us mistress of the seas. it satisfies the craving for independence so strongly implanted in our race, for in these modern times where can liberty of action be sought so well as upon the boundless ocean, where no notices of trespass can be found, and where every man is free?

And And yachting is national in other senses.

It started, or at any rate it grew to large dimensions, under the stimulus of laudable and patriotic ambition to increase the efficiency of our naval forces at a time when we were very keenly alive to the fact that national existence depends upon supremacy at sea. That mission is fulfilled; but yachting is still of national importance from a strictly practical and commercial point of view.

To calculate the number of hands engaged either as seamen or in the yards would be a difficult task. The number of seamen employed on a yacht is, of course, not proportionate to tonnage, a small racing yacht requiring many more hands than ordinary cruisers of a much larger size; but estimating the number at the ratio of one hand to every ten tons, it is not too much to say that some ten or eleven thousand of the smartest seamen that this or any other country can produce depend largely for their living upon our pleasure fleet. Many of the hands working in shipbuilding yards are not exclusively occupied in building or repairing yachts, and it is impossible, therefore, to arrive at an accurate calculation of the total number of men whose livelihood depends on the pastime of yachting. But if yacht designing and building, spar making, sail making, block making, rope making, upholstering, the manufacture of metal frames and plates and sheathing, and the making and fitting of the multifarious objects required in a yacht, be taken into consideration, there can be no doubt that many thousands of families on shore owe their employment to our national love of the sea, and that yachting contributes not a little to the maintenance of a race of seamen upon whose skill and courage the country has relied in the past, and will have to rely again. a To trace yachting from the beginning is difficult task, but it appears to have originated in a well-defined desire to supplement the naval power of the country. Our pleasure fleet being subject to conditions similar to those which have so profoundly affected both our ships of war and our mercantile marine, great changes have taken place in it since the early years of the last century. Steam has almost completely superseded sail as the motive power of large yachts, and, among sailing vessels, the tendency is to diminish in size. As the direction in which a pastime such as yachting develops is dictated by the temper and bent of national feeling, the change from long years of war to long years of peace profoundly modified the character, aims, and objects of yachting. Racing has become of absorbing interest now, whereas formerly yachtsmen devoted themselves almost exclusively to cruising in company and performing evolutions under an admiral or commodore, after the fashion of a fleet of ships of war. Though these formal cruises and manœuvres, and the lavish expenditure of gunpowder in vogue half a century ago, appear somewhat ridiculous to us now, their object was sound and laudable and their meaning is clear enough.

Though occasional matches are mentioned as According to Lloyd's Register, the yachts owned early as 1661, there can be no doubt that yachting and built in the United Kingdom amounted in developed into an important pastime under the 1908 to 1,166 steam yachts, with a tonnage of stimulus of patriotism. Largely for that purpose 108,610, and to 2,866 sailing yachts, having a clubs were formed, pre-eminent among which on tonnage of 48,093, making a total of 4,032 vessels account of numbers, wealth, and enterprise was with a tonnage amounting to 156,703. But many the Royal Yacht Club, now known as the Royal yachts are built in this country and owned abroad; 1; Yacht Squadron. Fleet evolutions, signalling, and, according to the same authority, the total chasing imaginary foes, and all the incidents of number of yachts built in the United Kingdom naval war to excel in these was the ambition of and now upon the register amount to 4,594, with yachtsmen; moreover, the fact that we were cona tonnage of 247,670. The total number of yachts stantly at war, and that privateering was uniin the world is 7,568, with a tonnage of 377,427. versal, must have tended to encourage armament The United Kingdom thus owns, roughly speaking, and cruising in company. 40 per cent., and has constructed 65 per cent. of the tonnage of the world. Putting the average cost of steam yachts, racers, and cruisers at £55 per ton, the capital sunk in our own pleasure fleet, exclusive of vessels built for foreign owners, amounts to no less a sum than £9,402,180, and, assuming that two-thirds of the total number are put into commission for the summer months, and that upkeep amounts to £10 per ton, the annual expenditure upon the fleet will be, in round numbers, something over £1,044,000.

Early in the last century our yachts were essentially sea-going cruisers, and the ambition of their owners was to emulate the performances of the smaller frigates, brigs, and despatch vessels of the Navy. The extent to which yachts copied men-of-war may be gathered from a description in Bell's Life of August 12th, 1827, of the Duke of Buckingham's yacht. She is described carrying 12 brass guns, 18- and 12-pounders, and a full complement of seamen and marines, with a chaplain and doctor. This vessel was a brig, as and probably of the same class as the Io-gun brigs of the Navy, of which there were such a number in the service. Discipline was kept up on these private vessels with a degree of strictness equal to that maintained in the Navy, and was enforced by similar means. The Hampshire Telegraph of August 5th, 1826, gives the following account of the discipline maintained by Lord "Yarborough :- "The 'Falcon' yacht, Lord Yarborough," it states, "is manned by 54 choice hands who are governed in every repects as on board a man-of-war. The honest tars were so well convinced of the impossibility of being properly managed without a due sense of the 'cat o' nine tails' that they voluntarily consented to its lawful application on board, and ere the 'Falcon' left Plymouth Sound last week, all hands cordially signed a paper setting forth the usefulness of a sound flogging in cases of extremity and their perfect willingness to undergo the experiment whenever deemed necessary for the preservation of good order." It was no uncommon thing for yachts of this class to obtain leave to join the squadrons of his Majesty's fleet.

For instance, we learn from the Morning Herald of August 3rd, 1809, that Sir William Curtis, an alderman of London, wrote a pressing request to Mr. Percival for permission to sail with the fleet. Mr. Percival answered that as a friend he did not like to refuse Sir William Curtis, but Chancellor of the Exchequer he could not write upon the subject to the Admiralty unless the worthy alderman would consent to put his vessel under their orders, which condition Sir William Curtis readily accepted. as Discipline was perhaps harder to maintain among owners than among crews, but goodwill and a hearty desire to co-operate towards making the manœuvres a success seem to have been fairly effective. دو That muddles were occasionally made is shown by an account in the Sporting Magazine of October, 1831. It is there narrated that the squadron, consisting of 33 sail, weighed for Cherbourg in two lines, Lord Yarborough in the "Falcon" leading the weather, and Lord Belfast with his flag flying on board the "Harlequin the leeward line. In consequence of the fleet being at Spithead and the wind nearly right through the Needles, they went out by St.

Helens. Soon after getting round St. Helens the wind freshened considerably, and a great many of the smaller ships were obliged to shift jibs and reef. About 3 o'clock, the wind still freshening, some yachts with ladies on board made a signal for permission to anchor, and the commodore replied, "Anchor when you please and where most convenient." Of course this signal was in reply to those yachts which had asked permission to anchor, but unluckily it was understood by a great many to be a general order, and the consequence was that almost all bore up and ran in under the land, leaving their noble commodore and a few others to face the anticipated gale. The consequence was the dispersion of the squadron, to the great mortification of their commodore, who doubtless would willingly have brought many of the captains to a court martial, had it been in his power to do so.

Lord Yarborough took a leading part in promoting manœuvres, and we learn from the Hampshire Advertiser and Royal Yacht Club Gazette, which paper is a mine of information on nautical matters of the day, that his lordship, availing himself of the offer of Mr. Markham to lend his yacht, as a tender to the "Falcon," struck his broad pennant on board his own yacht and hoisted it in Mr. Markham's schooner. He then proceeded with the fleet to sea, where he exercised them in a variety of evolutions.

Though racing among yachts was not neglected, speed was looked at from a naval point of view.

Owners sought to demonstrate the advantages of certain improved models and types by building yachts identical with king's ships in all respects of tonnage, armament, crews, and stores. They raced ra them against picked specimens of men-ofwar; and naval constructors were glad to avail themselves of the information thus derived.

Men like Lord Yarborough and the Duke of Portland took their yachts to sea with the Royal Fleet, as these two gentlemen did with the "Falcon" and "Pantaloon" in 1831.

The purpose with which these yachts accompanied the fleets was clearly not simply for pleasure, but to demonstrate to the authorities the advances which private enterprise had made in the science of shipbuilding.

In an interesting article on the utility of yacht clubs in a number of the Sporting Magazine of the year 1832, it is explained that naval constructors were so bound by hard-and-fast rules, and the Merchant Service by tonnage regulation, that the only means the dockyard designers had of getting new ideas was when they happened to catch a fast privateer. "But at length," it adds, "a Society has sprung up, abounding in resources, enjoying more than princely wealth, independent of power, unshackled by the mercenary views of interest, and marshalling in its lists half the rank and talent in the country. Its aim was to associate pleasure with profit, and to establish on a patriotic basis a national and splendid festival worthy of the brightest age of England, but there was another and more direct object to which it tended the improvement of the art of construction. The Naval administration foresaw this consequence and were not backward in promoting the welfare of the Society, which it is unnecessary to say was the Royal Yacht Club. How bright has been the result! Every year has brought additional improvements, and every day has pointed out some new field of experiments, and even while I write the Navy has acknowledged its inability to compete with one of the newest models." In July 13th and 17th, as we learn from the same source, an interesting match took place. by order of the Admiralty, in the presence of Sir Thomas Foley, the commander-in-chief at Portsmouth, between the "Emerald," the fastest cutter in the Navy, and the "Paddy from Cork," the property of Mr. James C. Beamish, a member of the Water Club of Cork Harbour. The "Paddy from Cork" beat the "Emerald" on every point of sailing, in running, reaching and beating to windward, in smooth water and in a sea way. She was so far superior to the naval cutter that it was deemed useless to prolong the contest to a third day.

That the Admiralty recognised the value of the service rendered by private owners is shown by the fact that in 1832 Mr. Fincham, Superintendent of the School of Naval Architecture in the dockyard of Portsmouth, measured up the following yachts:-Lord Yarborough's "Falcon," Mr.

Thorold's "Coquette," Lord Anglesey's "Pearl," and Lord Grantham's "Nautilus"; and reports that "from having the elements of a variety of vessels, and their ascertained sailing qualities, conclusions may be drawn which will greatly conduce to the improvement and adjustment of vessels. The excellency of many of the vessels belonging to the Royal Yacht Club, and the improvements which are frequently made in the construction of new vessels added to the list, render the operations of this distinguished club highly interesting and important." "The advantages to be derived from yacht sailing to the general improvement of naval architecture, are principally in the forms, as particu- AA2 larly adapted to fast sailing, which under the favourable circumstances the yachts are placed in by not having those weights which men-of-war necessarily have on board, they are so well calculated to promote." "When vessels of this description are found to possess superior qualities by ascertaining the principles, it may be determined whether they may be, or may not be, adapted to ships of war, either directly or by some modification." a The most remarkable instance of a direct private experiment in naval architecture for public purposes is to be found in the case of the "Water Witch," built by Lord Belfast in 1833.

Lord Belfast, taking the given length of the most despised class of vessels in his Majesty's Navy, the IO-gun brigs, commonly known as bathing machines," declared that he could construct a brig that would outsail any vessel in the Royal Navy, and be superior to any vessel of her class for purposes of war. To work his lordship went and produced the celebrated "Water Witch," built for him by Joseph White, of East Cowes. Every possible attention was paid to constructing and perfecting her exactly as a man-of-war brig. She was built with the same heavy scantling; and with all her proper complement of guns and crew, stores, provisions, water, and other weights on board, she started under Captain George Pechell and joined the experimental squadron at sea.

The task she had before her was formidable, as the fleet contained four new ships built on the most approved principles.

The trials were brought off near Cork, and we learn that the "Water Witch" beat the whole squadron in a way hardly to be credited.

In a trial of 6 hours in a fine breeze she weathered on "Castor" mile, on "Prince of Wales" 2½ miles, and on "Donegal" and "Nimrod" 32. We learn also that she beat "Vernon," "Snake," Pantaloon," and "Serpent" on other occasions. 66 Sir P. Malcolm, who commanded the squadron, reported of her that she was perfect of her class, carrying her guns higher out of the water than the "Trinculo," 18-gun brig, with complete storage for crew, stores, water, and provisions.

Bell's Life attributes her success to her finer entry.

Thus it will be seen that the object and ambition of yacht owners was to set an example to the Royal Navy in construction, and to vie with it in the skill and seamanship necessary to manœuvre fleets of sailing ships in company. But as the memory of war became less and less distinct, the character of yachting gradually changed, and manœuvring and formal cruising died out by degrees. The last occasion on which the R.Y.S. executed any nautical manœuvre was in 1887 when, on the occasion of her Majesty's Jubilee, they sailed past Osborne in two columns, steam and sail, finishing up with a signal from the commodore" Steam full speed ahead."

As steam gradually superseded sail in the Navy, it became more and more difficult for private owners to render much assistance to the Board of Admiralty, and it is practically impossible for them to do so now. No private gentlemen are possessed of wealth sufficient to enable them to experiment in line-ofbattle ships, or ships of the cruiser type, while the discomforts of life on board torpedo boats and "destroyers" are such as to deter any sane man from building one for his own use.

Occasionally a vessel, built for private owners, has been utilised for some special warlike purpose, such as, for instance, the "Candace," built by Messrs. Ramage and Ferguson for the late Mr.

John Lysaght, which under the name of "Fire Queen" served in our Navy as a despatch boat. and the "Giralda," designed and built by the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company for the late Mr. McCalmont, which has passed into the service of Spain, and is now chiefly used by King Alfonso as a royal yacht. From the designs of Mr. G. L. Watson came the "Mayflower," built by the Clyde Bank Engineering Company for the late Mr. Goelet, and the "Hermione," built by Messrs. Fleming and Fergusson, both of which vessels were added to the navy of the United States. But, in spite of these few examples to the contrary, it is to the last degree improbable that yachtsmen will in the future be able to render that practical assistance to the Navy that they certainly did in the past. Fortunately, however, their services are no longer necessary. The advantage of great speed in the numerous mail steamships of our mercantile marine stimulates private firms and companies to carry out experiments in naval architecture and marine engineering analogous to those which in the early days of the century were mainly conducted by yacht owners. Naval constructors can, and it is to be hoped do, study the results of private enterprise exhibited in the wonderful ships turned out from building yards on the Tyne, the Clyde, and Belfast Lough.

The origin and development of yacht clubs is so intimately connected with the origin and development of yachting that no review of that pastime would be complete without some notice of the clubs.

As the pastime of pleasure sailing became popular, and as men joined in cruising in company, in performing combined evolutions, and occasionally in racing, some organisation among them became necessary. Yachting created clubs, and clubs encouraged yachting.

Owing to the dearth of records, it seems impossible to do more than guess at the earlier events which led to the formation of clubs. A few of those now in existence can claim lineal descent from ancient institutions, but the greater portion of the numerous clubs which now occupy almost every available yachting centre round our coasts are of comparatively modern date.

Where yachts were gathered together it was inevitable that matches between them should take place, and as these occasional private matches developed into regular open regattas, some sort of organised authority for the regulation of the sport became essential.

A short cruise or the performance of combined nautical manœuvres, followed by a dinner, after which resolutions for the regulation of manœuvres or regattas were passed, formed the germ of a society which gradually developed into a club.

The most ancient club of which we have any authentic record is the Water Club of Cork Harbour. The origin of this club is lost in obscurity, but in the year 1720 it was established on a permanent basis, and its regulations were set down in writing, forming quaint and curious rules which throw an amusing light on the manners and customs of our forefathers.

These rules are, like so much of the statute law of England, only declaratory of a common law which existed long previously. This is clearly established by the rules themselves, particularly by Rule 3, which runs as follows:- "Resolved that no admiral presume to bring more than two dozen of wine to his treat, for it has always been deemed a breach of the ancient rules and constitutions of the club, except when my Lords the Judges are invited." From this it is quite clear that even in the year 1720 there were "ancient rules and constitutions." an The club appears to have consisted of admiral, elected annually, twenty-four captains, and a chaplain, added to which there was an official known as the Knight of the Island, the island in question being Haulbowline Island. The objects of the club seem to have been to carry out a formal cruise at every spring tide, from April to September; and to dine together after the cruise, it being a rule of the club that each captain should entertain in succession. The fleet was ordered to rendezvous on club days between Spithead and Spike Island, at a quarter ebb. Any boat not in sight when the admiral was abreast of Spike Island forfeited a "British half-crown" for gunpowder for the fleet. Gunpowder seems to have been in great requisition, and elaborate rules existed as to signalling by guns and saluting the admiral.

Whether the club possessed a club-house of its own at this early date, or whether its meetings hills reverberate with the sound of his gun, and the fleet weighs anchor. They glide in stately, and probably somewhat slow, procession round Spike Island, led by the admiral, who doubtless notes the absentee, and subsequently extracts from him that "British" half-crown provided for in the rules.

Passing through the entrance of the harbour, the admiral proceeds to manœuvre his fleet, to the great gratification of the host of spectators, and after summoning first one captain and then another to receive his directions by a profuse expenditure of gunpowder, he hoists Dutch colours and fires two guns. This is the signal for a general chase after an imaginary enemy, a chase which continues till he hauls down his flag and fires another gun. The fleet reassembles and once more falls into line in its appointed FLEET OF WATER CLUB IN CORK HARBOUR-MANCŒUVRING. (From a painting in the possession of the Cork Yacht Club.) a were held in some convenient tavern, it is difficult to determine. References are made to the "Castle" at Haulbowline, and it would be very interesting to know what building was referred to, and whether it constituted a club-house.

Such would seem to be the case, for it is laid down in the rules that it was the duty of the Knight of the Island, under severe penalties, to see that no unauthorised person entered the clubroom, that the secretary had the rules of the club affixed to some proper place in the clubroom at Haulbowline Island, and that on club days the flag-consisting of a Union with a green centre charged with the Irish harp in goldshould be hoisted on the Castle at Haulbowline. The fortnightly cruise must have afforded a gay, and to our ideas a quaint, sight in the beautiful harbour of the Cove of Cork, when the fleet, decorated with huge ensigns and streamers, and manned by petticoated and pig-tailed seamen, worked up to their rendezvous at Spithead and let go their anchors. The admiral, who had been pacing his deck with as much importance as if he commanded a squadron of ships of the line, gives the word to hoist his foresail half-up, and at the appointed signal the others heave short and get their anchors apeak, all except perhaps one belated ship, which is struggling round the far side of Haulbowline Island. In a moment the admiral's foresail is hauled right up, while the order. Back again through the Narrows and up to their anchorage they proceed in line, and the captains, having anchored in position, and made up everything for the night, forgather at the club room to enjoy the hospitality of the host of the day.

This manœuvring and chasing of an imaginary foe sounds somewhat trivial in our modern ears; but when it is considered that the nation at this period was usually at war, and that yachts of those days bore a very close resemblance to the smaller class of king's ships and might do useful work, the origin and significance of the custom becomes clear. A fleet of steam yachts, analogous to our destroyers, might do worse under similar circumstances than learn to manœuvre together.

Quaint club rules existed apparently for the purpose of checking extravagance in their convivial meetings. It was ordered that no admiral should bring more than two dishes of meat for the entertainment of the club, or more than two dozen of wine to his treat. From 1720 to 1735 no restriction seems to have been put on the amount of wine consumed, and over the events which led to a change in this practice sympathetic history draws a veil. But in 1735 appears a rule that no member shall drink more than one bottle of wine, unless it be a "peremptory." What a peremptory" was is not explained, but perhaps Rule 14, which says: "Resolved that such members of the club or others as shall talk of sailing after dinner be fined a bumper," may throw some light on the subject.

Peremptories were probably not infrequent or unpopular. Every member of the club being peremptorily obliged to drink the bumper inflicted as a fine for talking shop, it is hard to believe that when a number of enthusiastic yachtsmen sat down to dine after cruising all day, they were not peremptorily obliged to drink a very large number of bumpers, to the inevitable and perhaps not unpremeditated infringement of the one-bottle rule.

The club took cognisance also of the dress of its members, and in the rules dated 1720 it is ordered that no long-tail wigs, large sleeves, or ruffles be worn by any member at the club.

In 1817 the club settled upon a uniform, and admitted ladies to the privileges of the club. The records of July 9th contain the following resolutions :- "Resolved that the members of the club shall dress in the following uniform: plain blue cloth coat lined with buff, yellow buttons engraved Cork Harbour Water Club, buff waistcoat and breeches." "Resolved that the wives and daughters of the members be also considered members of the club, and entitled to wear the uniform except the breeches."

The Water Club continued upon these lines until the year 1765, at which time it appears to have almost died out, and from 1765 until 1806 the records concerning it are scanty. The reasons are not far to seek. Great Britain was passing through a troublous period, taxation was heavy, and the pressure of hard times and consequent necessity for retrenchment was felt by people of all classes, and especially in Ireland. Moreover, during the prolonged naval war, the press gang was continuously at work, and as the crews of yachts were not exempt from service, a yacht owner was liable to find himself stripped of his best men at any moment.

Under these circumstances it is not strange that yachting should have languished for a time.

After the victory at Trafalgar had relieved the strain on our naval forces, and at the same time had increased the national enthusiasm for all things nautical, we find a great impulse given to the formation of yacht clubs, and in 1806 the Cork Water Club was revived, mainly owing to the energetic action of the Marquis of Thomond, Lord Kinsale, and Mr. Smith Barry.

About 1821 the club appears again to have fallen into decay, but continued to exist under the name of the Little Monkstown Club. This lasted for a few years, till in 1828 the remaining members of the Cork Water Club and the Little Monkstown Club amalgamated under the title of the "Cork Yacht Club," and took over the property of the old Cork Water Club, among which are the very curious club records alluded to, and a set of very valuable paintings, which now adorn the walls of the club, and which are exceedingly instructive as showing the type of yacht prevalent at that time.

In 1831 the club received a Royal Warrant entitling it to call itself Royal, and it now numbers 282 ordinary members, 15 honorary members, and 50 yachts sail under its flag.

Next to the Cork Water Club the Royal Thames Club can boast of the longest history. It dates from 1775, when the pleasure yachts on the Thames joined together and called themselves the "Duke of Cumberland's Fleet." The commencement does not appear to have been of a very glorious nature, as their races, which were sailed from London Bridge to Putney and back, were held in connection with the fêtes at Vauxhall and for prizes given by the proprietors of the gardens.

With the exception of a few years, the Cumberland Fleet held races regularly from 1775 until the coronation of George IV. in 1821, when the fleet was renamed "His Majesty's Coronation Sailing Society." Apparently the change was not altogether a success, as the result of a protest in connection with a race held in July of the same year was that eight of the captains called meeting and formed "The Thames Yacht Club."

They started with forty members, which included most of the old members of the Cumberland Fleet, and they attained such importance as quite to overshadow His Majesty's Coronation Sailing Society, which dwindled away and was finally dissolved in 1831. a In 1827 the Duke of Clarence joined the Thames Yacht Club, and on his accession to the throne in 1830 granted it the title of Royal. The first below-bridge match was sailed in 1823, and the last above-bridge match in 1840. The Royal Thames is one of the most successful clubs in existence, and numbers 742 members, with 351 yachts. Lambeth Public Libra In 1867 some members of the Royal Thames broke adrift from the club and started a new organisation under the title of the New Thames Yacht Club. A fine old house on the bank of the river at Gravesend was acquired for the use of the members, and for forty years the club played a prominent part in yachting history. Two days at the commencement of each season were set aside for racing, and many a famous yacht made her début under the burgee of the club.

The river matches from Gravesend round the Mouse Lightship and the historic Down Swin races to Harwich were amongst the most interesting of the annual regattas, and were invariably followed by a large muster of yachtsmen in a steamer chartered by the club for the purpose. The lease of the club house expired in 1908, and as it was found impossible to procure suitable premises on the Thames, the club was wound up at the end of that year. During its forty-one years of existence the New Thames Yacht Club distributed more than £10,000 in prize money, and its untimely demise was universally regretted. Next in point of age to the Royal Thames is a small Irish club called the "Lough Erne" Yacht Club, which still exists, with its headquarters at Belturbet. The Solent, with an area of about 80 square miles, including Southampton Water, forms the most perfect stretch of water for yachting purposes in these islands, and yachtsmen were not slow in availing themselves of its natural advantages. At the beginning of the last century it was the custom for large numbers of the fashionable world to assemble at Cowes for a period of some weeks, many of them arriving in their own yachts.

The fact of so many yachts being gathered together led inevitably to racing, and accordingly we find that in 1804 fifteen yachts competed on the 18th August for certain prizes given by Mr.

George Henry Rose. The Hampshire Courier for the year 1810 gives lists of fashionables arriving at Cowes from July 16th until the end of October, and frequent mention is made of yacht races taking place off Cowes.

The first indication of a dinner, that invariable precursor of a club, is on September 18th, 1813, when it is recorded that after a match for pilot boats, at which a number of yachts were present, a select party of gentlemen dined together at the Marine Hotel at West Cowes.

On September 2nd, 1814, yacht races, which are referred to as the annual regatta, took place and were followed by a dinner at Aldred's Hotel, East Cowes, and in 1815 the Hampshire Telegraph alludes to many members of the Yacht Club," thus showing that the gentlemen who had been in the habit of arranging the regatta and dining together afterwards, had practically banded themselves into some sort of club. The Yacht Club was formally constituted at a meeting held on June Ist, 1815, at the Thatched House in St. James's Street, London. The chair was taken by Lord Grantham, and it was resolved that the club be called "The Yacht Club." The actual phraseology of the minutes is worth noticing, as showing that in this case, as in the case of the Water Club of Cork, an organisation of the nature of a club had previously existed, for we find it in the minutes that "At a meeting of the members of the Yacht Club it was resolved," and again "That the following are regarded members of the Club," and here followed forty-two names, these being no doubt the names of the gentlemen who had been in the habit of attending the annual dinners at Cowes.

It was at the same meeting settled that the qualification for membership of the club should be the ownership of a vessel not under ten tons, that ten members should ballot for the election of any new member, and that two black balls should exclude; that the entrance fee should be two guineas, to pay for two copies of the signal book, and that the flag of the club should be white, with a Union in the corner.

On August 24th, the first annual meeting of the Yacht Club was held at Cowes to elect members and transact other business. It was at the same meeting decided that yachts should fly a plain white burgee, and that officers of the navy should be eligible as honorary members. The first of such honorary members elected was Sir Thomas Hardy.

The club seems to have prospered, for on September 15th, 1817, the Prince Regent expressed his wish to join, and in 1818 the Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester also became members.

It was about this time that the club became much exercised as to the pattern of their uniform buttons, a controversy which raged at intervals for many years. 66 In 1820 the King was graciously pleased to give the club permission to use the term "Royal."

The club was henceforward called the Royal Yacht Club," and in June, 1821, its colours were changed to a red ensign and a plain red burgee.

It was agreed in 1822 that the members should meet on the first and third Monday in each month at Cowes, for a cruise under the commodore.

Long and elaborate sailing regulations are set forth, some of which profess to be made for the comfort of ladies, who, it is interesting to note, were by this time participating in the sport.

In 1824 the club appears to have been rising in importance. It obtained considerable assistance from Government in negotiating with foreign countries for the remission of various port and tonnage dues, and the first step towards a clubhouse was taken in securing a coffee room in the Marine Hotel.

On August 22nd of the same year seventeen yachts of the Royal Yacht Club, under Commodore Lord Yarborough, sailed for Cherbourg on the annual cruise. They encountered a thick fog which necessitated their anchoring off Lymington for the night, but though the fog lasted during the following day, they got under way, and when at last the fog lifted, found themselves within two miles of Cherbourg. The commodore hoisted the signal to anchor as convenient, and sent ashore a list of the yachts to the French Admiral, with the information that it was the squadron of the Royal Yacht Club on pleasure bent, and asking leave to salute. Leave was granted, whereupon the ships saluted with seventeen guns, to which the admiral replied. After three days of high festivity in the French port, the squadron sailed for Guernsey, and thence home.

The leading position of the Royal Yacht Club at this time is indicated by the fact that in 1825 the Plymouth Regatta Committee appealed to the Yacht Club to decide a protest of Mr. Wills's "Arrow" against Mr. Godfrey Webster's "Scorpion."

In this year, on September 13th, the general meeting of the club was held at the new clubhouse, West Cowes. In 1826 qualification for membership was raised to the possession of yachts of 30 tons.

In 1829 the Admiralty granted to the Yacht Club the right to wear the St. George's ensign, and as a consequence a white burgee with a red cross and a yellow crown in the centre, as worn at present, was adopted.

In 1833 the King expressed his desire that the club should henceforth he known as "The Royal Yacht Squadron," of which his Majesty was graciously pleased to consider himself the head, at the same time presenting a cup, value 100 guineas, to be sailed for annually. On her accession to the throne, her Majesty Queen Victoria was pleased to become a patroness of the Squadron, and to present a cup for competition at the annual regatta.

Other Queen's cups were, by her Majesty's good pleasure, handed over, for competition annually, to the various principal yacht clubs in turn.

The Squadron was, at this date, using a house on the Marine Parade at Cowes, now known as the Gloucester Hotel, as their club-house, and continued to do so until 1857, when their lease expired. Cowes Castle becoming vacant about the same time, by the death of the Marquis of Anglesey, who had occupied it as Governor of the Isle of Wight, the Commissioners of Woods and Forests granted a lease of it to the Squadron.

In 1865 his Majesty King Edward, then Prince of Wales, was elected a member, and in 1882, on the death of Lord Wilton, became commodore, an office which he held until he came to the throne, when he was appointed Admiral. King Edward was succeeded as commodore by the Marquis of Ormonde, who still holds office, and the Duke of Leeds is vice-commodore. In 1909 the number of members was 231, whilst 224 naval honorary members were on the books of the Squadron. The fleet comprises 109 yachts with an aggregate tonnage of 13,114.

The subject of classification of yachts for racing purposes has been before the Squadron on many occasions. The first attempt was made in 1829, when yachts were divided into five classes as follows:-Yachts above 140 tons constituted the first class, and started scratch. Those between 140 and 100 formed the second class, and received a start of half a mile. The third class consisted of vessels between 100 and 75, receiving a mile and a quarter; the fourth class of those between 75 and 55, receiving two miles and a quarter, the fifth class of those between 55 and 40, and receiving four miles; while vessels under 40 received seven miles, all calculations being made for a forty-mile course.

In 1867 the Royal Yacht Squadron resolved "that it is desirable that a general Sailing Committee be appointed to consist of members of the different Yacht Clubs, with power to draw up general rules of yacht racing, and to act as a Court of Reference," and from this resolution the present Yacht Racing Association may be said to have sprung.

In 1824 the Royal Northern Yacht Club was established, with two branches under separate management, one in Scotland, on the Clyde, and one in Ireland, on Belfast Lough; but this plan was not found to answer well, and each division was constituted a separate club. The Irish club dissolved in 1838, but the Scottish branch has continued to flourish down to the present day.

In 1909 there were 358 members owning a fleet of 137 yachts.

Belfast Lough was not destined to remain without a yacht club, and the Royal Ulster Yacht Club, which was started in 1866, is now a very flourishing institution. The Earl of Shaftesbury is the commodore, and commands a fleet of 86 ships, with an aggregate tonnage of 6,482 tons.

The Royal Western of England Yacht Club was (under the name of the "Port of Plymouth Royal Clarence Regatta Club") started at Plymouth in 1827, but in 1833 its title was altered to that of "The Royal Western Yacht Club."

H.R.H. the Duke of Sussex was patron, and H.R.H. the Duchess of Kent patroness, while eight Devonshire worthies were appointed presidents, of whom one, Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, of Killerton Park, died in 1898. In 1835 there were 43 yachts on the register. The number of yachts now belonging to the club is something over 100, and its membership is very large.

The Royal London was founded in 1838, under the title of "The Arundel Yacht Club," but changed its name in 1845, in which year it was granted by the Corporation of the City of London the right to use the City arms on its flag.

Until quite recently it was peculiar in possessing two club-houses, one in London, the other at Cowes, but the former has now been discontinued, as also has the annual regatta on the Thames.

The races held by this club were originally sailed above London Bridge, but, after a time, a course from Erith round the Nore and back was substituted. The last matches sailed on the Thames under the club burgee took place in 1908 from Gravesend round the Mouse and back, and the racing is now confined to the annual regatta at Cowes.

The Royal London was the first club to institute flying starts instead of starts from an anchor, a principle which has since been universally adopted. The Royal Clyde is the largest club in the kingdom, and one of the largest in the world.

The number of members is 944, owning 332 yachts. It was founded in 1856, and received the prefix "Royal" in 1871.

The Royal Harwich is one of the most important clubs on the eastern coast. In 1870 the commodore, Mr. Ashbury, raced his schooner "Cambria" against the American schooner "Dauntless" across the Atlantic, beating the "Dauntless" by two hours. The King, when Prince of Wales, was commodore, and is now patron of the club, which numbers some 300 members, with 180 yachts.

The Royal Victoria Yacht Club was established at Ryde in 1844, under the patronage of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, and received the Admiralty warrant the following year. It is a prominent racing club, and the regatta week, annually held in August, is one of the most popular fixtures of the season. The principal trophy offered by the club for competition is the valuable Royal Victoria Gold Cup, which was won by the late King when Prince of Wales with his cutter "Britannia " in 1893. In 1908 King Edward returned the trophy to the club with the request that it might be offered for annual competition by first-class yachts. Since it became a perpetual challenge cup, the Gold Cup has been sailed for in 1908 and 1909, the winner on both occasions being Mr. Myles B.

Kennedy's "White Heather," and in 1910, when it was captured by the American schooner "Westward." The club has 290 members, 53 honorary members, and a fleet comprising 120 yachts.