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Physical Geography: Black

No continent is so well supplied with natural water courses as Europe, although in size and usefulness for purposes of navigation its rivers are far inferior to those of America and Asia. The Baltic receives the Neva, Duna, Niemen, Vistula, Oder, and many other streams; the North Sea, the Scheldt, Rhine, Weser, and Elbe; the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Azov, the Ural, Volga, and Don; and the Black Sea, the Danube, Dniester, and Dnieper. Few rivers of importance empty directly into the Atlantic, the Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir (all Iberian) being the only ones. The Garonne and Loire discharge into the Bay of Biscay, and the Seine and Somme into the British Channel. The Adige, Po, Tiber, Arno, Var, Rhone, and Ebro flow into the Mediterranean, and the three great rivers of the north, the Dwina, Onega, and Petchora, into the Arctic Ocean. The short but important and well-known streams of the British Islands comprise the Thames, Severn, Mersey, and Humber, in England; the Tweed, Clyde, Forth, and Tay, in Scotland; and the Boyne, Liffey, and Shannon, in Ireland. With the exception of the Danube, which rises in the Black Forest, all the European rivers with a course of over 1000 m. are in Russia.

CLIMATE. The continent extends from the Arctic Circle to within 10° of the Tropic of Cancer, and, partly owing to the vicinity of the Atlantic and partly to the influences of tropical Africa and Arabia, its mean temperature is higher than that of any other division of the globe in corresponding latitudes. Except on the shores of the Arctic and the Black Sea, the extremes of heat and cold are less marked than in Asiatic or American countries, and especially is this the case in the W. Great Britain lies in the same latitude as Labrador; Spain and Turkey in that of the Middle States of the American Union; while the thermometer never records such extremes of heat and cold in London as are more common in New York or Chicago, and the mean temperature of Madrid, Rome, and Constantinople, is about equal to that of New Orleans, full 10º farther S. The rainfall is usually large but somewhat unequally distributed, the western islands receiving considerably more than a fair share, while in the extreme S.-E. the precipitation is light. In Argyleshire, Scotland, and the Isle of Skye, and at several points in the W. of England, from 100 to 180 in. of rain have been registered during one year. S. of the Alps the average precipitation is about 40 in. per annum, but Spain receives much less. The prevalent winds of Western Europe are S.-W. or W., while in the S.-E. division the prevailing winds are from the N. and E. Italy, Spain, and the Mediterranean coast generally, are exposed to the sirocco -a destructive heated wind from the African deserts, and the British Islands are subject to heavy fogs produced by the condensation of the rain-laden winds which blow from the Atlantic.

SOIL AND VEGETATION. -Except in the sub-arctic region and on the shores of the Caspian there is little valueless land in Europe. The mountain country is generthere is little valueless land in Europe. The mountain country is generally well wooded , the plains and valleys are extremely fertile, and the great Russian plateau sustains an immense population and produces large quantities of grain for export. Spain, Italy, Turkey, and the river valleys of the western portion of the continent, are as fertile to-day as ever, and although the lands along the Mediterranean have been cultivated for 30 centuries they show no falling off in productive power. The most important economical position is sustained by the cereals, of which wheat is the chief, more than half of Europe being adapted to its culture. The N. limit of wheat is about lat. 57°, and the hardier grains-rye, oats, and barley-flourish as far N. as the 68th parallel. Corn is extensively grown in the S.; beans and peas from Spain and Italy N. to the 65th parallel. The potato is widely distributed through the central and N. districts, and is successfully cultivated even in Norway. France, Italy, Germany, Spain , Switzerland, Greece, and the Ionian Islands are the home of the vine. Italy , Spain, Greece, Portugal, and Turkey, of the olive. Rice, cotton, and sugar cane , the fig, pomegranate, melon, peach, and apricot flourish in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. Tobacco is extensively grown from Sicily to Sweden, but is unknown in Spain and the British Islands. Hemp and flax thrive best between lat. 45° and 60°, but are cultivated from the Crimea to Archangel. In the S. the orange, citron, and lemon, and in the N. the apple, pear, plum, and cherry flourish.

Notwithstanding the great destruction of forests necessitated by the demands of commerce and the climatic conditions, Europe is even yet well timbered. Northern Russia and the Scandinavian peninsula contain immense pine forests; Austro-Hungary, Germany, France, Turkey, and Spain have extensive areas of both coniferous and deciduous trees. In the Scottish Highlands and other parts of Great Britain many large plantations of forest timber have been made, and all over Europe arboriculture has of late years attracted the attention both of individuals and the State.

ANIMALS. There is an abundance of domestic animals, including horses, horned cattle, sheep, goats, and swine. The camel and buffalo are domesticated in Southern Russia; Italy and Spain possess large numbers of asses and mules; and in Lapland and Northern Russia the reindeer is the principal draught animal. The dog, cat, rat, fox, wolf, hare, and rabbit are found in all parts (except that the wolf is unknown in Great Britain). The elk, red deer, antelope, chamois, roebuck, ibex, aurochs, and a few wild cattle, are unequally distributed throughout the continent and islands. Of pachydermatous wild animals the boar alone survives, and the only representatives of the larger carnivora are the Polar bear and his brown congener who inhabits the Alps, Pyrenees , Carpathians, and Scandinavian Mountains. The badger is widely distributed; there are beavers in Poland, Russia, Sweden and Lapland; seals on most of the coasts (including the Baltic and Caspian), and whales in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Not only the oceans but almost all the rivers and lakes abound with fish. with fish.

Salmon, herring, cod, pilchards, sturgeon, sardines, eels, tunny, anchovy, turbot, and mullet, are the chief varieties, and the fisheries furnish employment for hundreds of thousands of persons. Oysters are found on the Atlantic coast. A great impetus has of late years been given to the artificial propagation both of oysters and the salmonidæ; and the river fisheries of Southern Russia and Great Britain, as well as of some other countries, are of considerable economic importance. The crustacea are well represented, and the sponge and coral fisheries of the Mediterranean employ a large number of men. Europe is very rich in birds, including many species of eagles, vultures, the raven, crow, magpie, jackdaw, thrush, lark, sparrow, hawk, owl, and representatives of the gallinaceous order. Domestic fowl are plentiful, and include the turkey, hen, guinea-hen, duck, goose, swan, pigeon, and others. Reptiles are not numerous, and venomous snakes are scarce. Lizards, scorpions, and tarantulas are found in the southern peninsulas only.