Monasticism

a system of religious communities. Monk, from the Greek, signifies one who dwells alone, a hermit. The original monks were hermits. The first monastery was a settlement of monks who gathered around a monk celebrated for his piety. The term monasticism is of general application to the religious orders not only of Christianity, but to those of the Moslems, Jews, Buddhists, and Brahmins. Without doubt the origin of the monastery is oriental and Jewish. In the time of Christ we read of wayfaring people who lived a half ascetic life. The first monastery on record grew up under Paul the Hermit in upper Egypt about 250. A century later, we find a monastery of 1,400 monks on an island in the Nile. Before the death of its founder the number is said to have risen to 7,000. The inmates lived in cells hewn in the rock, three monks to a cell. They were divided into circles or groups, each having a common table. They lived on bread and water supplemented by oil and salt, with occasional fruit and vegetables. They ate their frugal meals in silence, while an elder brother read extracts from the Scriptures or some other edifying volume. They met twice daily for prayer and had special services on Sunday. They tilled the soil to raise wheat and vegetables for their own use. They wove mats and baskets for sale to procure such necessities as they could not produce. As time went on blacksmiths, tailors, boat builders, tanners, and other tradesmen developed among them. Monasticism spread rapidly from Egypt to Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, Armenia, and even into Mesopotamia.

Religious orders of women were established at almost the same time. It is estimated that during the fifth century there were not less than 100,000 monks and nuns in Egypt. In Syria a peculiar form of austerity was developed.

The monasteries of the eastern church were shaped largely by the influence of the monkish reformer, St. Basil. There is at the present time but one order in the Greek Church. The first monastery in Rome was established in 340 by Athanasius. It likewise was based on the Egyptian type. Monasteries spread rapidly throughout the West. Various orders for men and women sprang into existence. The total number falls a little short of 200. The monastic code most famous in the West, the one at the basis of nearly all monastic orders, is the rule of St. Benedict. The code which he published for the government of his monastery and of monasteries subsequently affiliated with him in the Benedictine order consists of seventy-three chapters. The monks are required to pass through a period of probation extending over many months. At the end of this time, they are free to withdraw if they have formed an unfavorable opinion of the order, or of their own ability to comply with its rules. Silence, humility, and obedience to superiors, even to seniors, is enjoined absolutely. Worship, study, and work are the rules of practice. The hours of sleep, study, and work are established. Punishments for infractions of the rules are prescribed. Complaining is treated as a grievous offense. The monks are forbidden to receive presents without permission of the abbot, and are on no account permitted to hold property. Luxury in all its forms is forbidden. The monks are assigned to labor in the kitchen, guest room, dining room, workshop, or field, each according to his individual capacity. The monasteries of Cluny founded in France about 910 had a wide influence in recalling the western monasteries to the simple rules of St. Benedict. During the time of the Crusades military orders arose. The Templars, the Hospitalers, known afterward as Knights of Malta, and the Teutonic Knights were formed for the defense of Christendom.

Monasteries were of incalculable service in spreading Christianity and civilization throughout western Europe. Wherever a monastery was established among the semi-barbarian people, good buildings, meadows, and fields were soon in evidence and served as models to the surrounding people. Sick rooms were maintained in which the wounded and ailing might receive medical attendance. The monasteries were houses of rest for the traveler and places of refuge from the exactions of the strong and the attack of the robber. For centuries the monks kept learning alive. For centuries the monks were almost the only persons who were able to read and write. They alone had libraries. Some of the monasteries under the lead of learned abbots, or lay brothers, become practically colleges for the instruction of young people. Much the same testimony is given by the unprejudiced historian in favor of convents. The sisters taught music, lace making, painting, and the household arts. In the total absence of other schools the convents were centers of intelligence and refinement where young girls were sent to learn.

With the growth of civilization and its comforts, however, the work of the monasteries became less essential. Other civilizing features, such as schools, colleges, books, and churches came into play. The monasteries monopolized an immense amount of property. Great areas of the most fertile land were under control of the monasteries, and revenues which a prince well might covet were derived from them. As Christianity became the universal belief and the work of the monks changed from preaching the faith to the collection of revenues, there was, in the case of many establishments at least, a deterioration in the manners and morals of the earlier monks. Charges of riotous living were rife and were believed readily. With the Reformation came a general crash. Monasteries were suppressed entirely in Protestant Germany and in Scandinavia. In England 1,616 houses with an annual revenue of $7,000,000, equivalent to several times that sum at the present day, were suppressed, good and bad together. Not less than 40,000 families were enriched by lands taken from the English monasteries. At the time of the French Revolution 820 abbeys and 225 convents were closed by order of the Assembly. The various Catholic countries of Europe have had times of hostility to monasticism. Spain dispossessed 900 monasteries by a single act in 1835. Portugal took action a year earlier closing 500 houses. Upon attaining their freedom from Spain, the various Latin states of the New World, notably Mexico, Chile, and Brazil, passed severe measures confiscating the property of the monasteries. Switzerland followed in 1847. The unification of Italy in 1870 was followed by the appropriation of the property of the various orders, with few exceptions, by the state. Between 1870 and 1882 2,555 establishments were condemned and their revenues seized.

There is some reason to think that the state did but too roughly and harshly what the church should have done more gradually and wisely. Pius IX is credited with the remark, which he very probably never made: "It was the devil's work, but the good God will turn it to a blessing, since their destruction was the only reform possible to them." At the present time, France is the most aggressive country in Europe in opposition to monasteries. In Germany all orders but the Jesuits now have the greatest freedom. In Great Britain and Ireland all repressive acts have been repealed. There is a revival of religious orders, especially in England and in Italy. In the United States religious freedom is guaranteed by the national Constitution. The various American monasteries and convents shelter about 8,000 male and 45,000 female members. See Lingard; Bede; Franciscans; Jesuits; Dominicans