Australasia
a division of the globe usually regarded as comprehending the islands of Australia, Tasmania, New rides, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, New Britain, the Admiralty Islands, groups; area, 3,470,000 square miles; sides numerous other islands and island New Guinea, and the Arru Islands, besides numerous other islands and island groups; area, 3,470,000 square miles; pop. about 6,400,000. It forms one of three portions into which some geographers have divided Oceania, the other two being Malaysia and Polynesia.
AUSTRALIA (older name, New Holland), the largest island in the world, a sea-girt continent, lying between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, S. E. of Asia. It is separated from New Guinea on the N. by Torres Strait, from Tasmania on It is separated from New Guinea on the dian and Pacific Oceans, S. E. of Asia. the S. by Bass Strait. It is divided into ricorn, and consec to the South Temperate, partly to the ricorn, and consequently belongs partly two unequal parts by the Tropic of Capconsequently belongs partly Torrid Zone. The Commonwealth consists of six colonies called the Original States of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. The act pro- Australia, and Tasmania. The act prothe Commonwealth was passed by the British Parliament in 1900. On Jan. 1, 1911, the north territory was transferred by South Australia to the Commonwealth, square miles, was vested in the Commonwealth for the purpose of forming the Federal Territory containing the seat of New South Wales, consisting of 912 lth, wealth for the purpose of forming the square miles, was vested in the Common- New South Wales, consisting of 912 the Commonwealth Government. This miles. area was increased in 1917 to 940 square population in 1918 are given as follows:
Area and Population. Their area and New South Wales.
Victoria...
Queensland.
South Australia.
Western Australia Sq. M.
Sq. M. 310,700 1,897,084 668,497 705,588 903,690 439,272 975,920 511,125 87,884 The population of the smaller divisions is as follows:
Tasmania, 202,842; Northern Territory, 3,269; Federal ederal Territory, T 2,404. The estimated total population in 1919 was 5,140,543.
Wales, Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, Adelaide, the capital of South A and Brisbane, the capital of Queensland, Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, Wales, Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, Sydney, the capital of New South are the chief towns.
Australia, Sydney, the capital of New South the principal being the Gulf of Carpenthere are few remarkable indentations; merous spacious harbors on the coasts, Topography. Although there are numerous spacious harbors on the coasts, Bight, and Spencer Gulf, on the S. The there are few remarkable indentations; chief projections are Cape York Peninsula and Arnhem Land in the N. Parallel to the N. E. coast runs the Great Barrier Reef for 1,000 miles.
The base of plored, is largely composed of rocky tracts and barren plains with little or no water. The whole continent forms an immense plateau, highest in the E., low Geology. The interior, so far as exelevated area and the sea. the table-land is granite, which forms the surface rock in a great part of the in the center, and with a narrow tract S. W., and is common in the higher water. The whole continent forms an tracts and barren plains with little or no plored, is largely composed of rocky grounds along the E. side. Secondary (cretaceous) and tertiary rocks largely developed in the interior. Silurian rocks occupy a large area in South The mountainous region in the S. E. and Australia, on both sides of Spencer Gulf. largely developed in the interior. Silu- (cretaceous) and tertiary rocks are rian, carbonaceus, rocks yielding good coal. The highest and most extensive mountain system is a belt about 150 miles wide, skirting the whole eastern and southeastern border of the continent, and often called, in and carboniferous are AUSTRALIA whole, or in part, the Great Dividing Range, from forming the great water shed of Australia. A part of it, called the Australian Alps, in the S. E. contains the highest summits in Australia, Mt.
Kosciusko (7,175 feet), Mt. Clark (7,256), and Mt. Townshend (7,353).
West of the Dividing Range are extensive plains or downs admirably adapted for pastoral purposes. The deserts and scrubs, which occupy large areas of the interior, are a characteristic feature of Australia.
Water Courses. - The chief river is the Murray, which, with its affluents, the Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Darling, drains a great part of the interior W. of the Dividing Range, and falls into the sea on the S. coast (after entering Lake Alexandrina). Its greatest tributary is the Darling, which may even be regarded as the main stream. On the E. coast are the Hunter, Clarence, Brisbane, Fitzroy, and Burdekin; on the W. the Swan, Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and De Grey; on the N. the Fitzroy, Victoria, Flinders, and Mitchell. The Australian rivers are of little service in facilitating internal communication. A considerable river of the interior is Cooper's Creek, or the Barcoo, which falls into Lake Eyre, one of a group of lakes on the S. side of the continent having no outlet, and, accordingly, salt. The principal of these are Lakes Eyre, Torrens, and Gairdner.
Another large salt lake of little depth, Lake Amadeus, lies a little W. of the center of Australia.
Climate. The climate of Australia is generally hot and dry, but very healthy.
In the tropical portions there are heavy rains, and in most of the coast districts there is a sufficiency of moisture, but in the interior the heat and drought are extreme. Considerable portions now devoted to pasturage are liable, at times, to suffer from drought.
Mineralogy.-Australia is a region containing a vast quantity of mineral wealth. Foremost come its rich and extensive deposits of gold. Australia also possesses silver, opper, tin, lead, zinc, antimony, mercury, plumbago, etc., in abundance, besides coal and iron. Various precious stones are found, as the garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire, and even the diamond. Of building stone there are granite, limestone, marble, and sandstone.
Plant Life. The Australian flora presents peculiarities which mark it off by itself in a very decided manner. Many of its most striking features have an unmistakable relation to the general dryness of the climate. The trees and bushes have, for the most part, a scanty foliage, AUSTRALIA presenting little surface for evaporation, or thick leathery leaves well fitted to retain moisture. The most widely spread types of Australian vegetation are the various kinds of gum tree (eucalyptus), the shea-oak (casuarina), the acacia or wattle, the grass tree (xanthorrhea), many varieties of proteaceæ, and a great number of ferns and tree ferns. Individual specimens of the peppermint (E. amygdalina) have been found to measure from 480 to 500 feet in height. As timber trees the most valuable members of this genus are the E. rostrata (or red gum), E. leucoxylon, and E. marginata, the timber of which is hard, dense, and almost indestructible. A number of the gum trees have deciduous bark. The wattle or acacia includes about 300 species, some of them of considerable economic value, yielding good timber or bark for tanning. The most beautiful and most useful is that known as the golden wattle (A. dealbata), which in spring is adorned with rich masses of fragrant yellow blossoms. Palms of which there are 24 species, all except the cocoa-palm peculiar to Australia-are confined to the N. and E. coasts. A plant which covers large areas in the arid regions is the spinifex or porcupine grass, a hard, coarse, and excessively spiny plant.
Other large tracts are occupied by herbs or bushes of a more valuable kind, from their affording fodder. Foremost among those stands the salt-bush (atriplex nummularia, order chenopodiacex). Beautiful flowering plants are numerous. Australia also possesses great numbers of turf-forming grasses, such as the kangaroo grass (anthistiria australis), which survives even a tolerably protracted drought. The native fruit trees are few and unimportant, and the same may be said of the plants yielding roots used as food; but exotic fruits and vegetables may now be had in the different colonies in great abundance and of excellent quality. The vine, the olive, and mulberry thrive well, and quantities of wine are now produced. The cereals of Europe and maize are extensively cultivated, and large tracts of country, particularly in Queensland, are under the sugar-cane.
Animal Life. - The Australian fauna is almost unique in its character. Its great feature is the nearly total absence of all the forms of mammalia which abound in the rest of the world, their place being supplied by a great variety of marsupials - these animals being nowhere else found, except in the opossums of America. There are 110 kinds of marsupials (of which the kangaroo, wombat, bandicoot, and phalangers or opossums, are the AUSTRALIA best known varieties), over 20 kinds of bats, a wild dog (the dingo), and a numporcupine ant-eater (echidna) constitute animals, the platypus, or water mole of mata), and are confined to Australia.
Their young are produced from eggs. the lowest order of mammals (monotre- Australia now possesses a large stock of Their young are produced from eggs.
Australia now possesses a large stock of the domestic animals of England, which thrive there remarkably well. The breed of horses is excellent. Horned cattle and sheep are largely bred, the first attaining a great size, while the sheep improve in fleece and their flesh in flavor. There are upward of 650 different species of birds, the largest being the emu, or Australian ostrich, and a species of cassowary. Peculiar to the country are the black swan, the honey sucker, the lyre bird, the brush turkey, and other mound building birds, the bower birds, etc. The other groups of birds in the continent.
There are many reptiles, the largest northern rivers. There are upward of 60 different species of snakes, some of which are frogs, and insects are also numerous in various parts. The seas, rivers, and la- Lizards, goons abound in fish of many varieties.
Peoples. The natives belong to the Australian negro stock, and are sometimes considered the lowest as regards intelligence in the whole human family, though this is doubtful. They are believed to number between 75,000 and 100,000, exclusive of those in the unexplored parts. They are of a dark-brown or black color, with jet-black curly, but not woolly, hair, of medium size, but inferior muscular development. They have no fixed habitations; in the summer they live almost entirely in the open air, and in the more inclement weather they they live almost entirely in the open air, shelter themselves with bark erections of the rudest construction. They have no shelter themselves with bark erections of cultivation and no domestic animals.
Their food consists of such animals as cultivation and no domestic animals. they can kill, and no kind of living creature seems to be rejected, snakes, lizards, frogs, and even insects being eaten, often half raw. They speak a number of different languages or dialects. They are occasionally employed by the settlers in light kinds of work and as horse-break-
The weapons of all the tribes are ers. very venomous. generally similar, consisting of spears, shields, boomerangs, wooden axes, clubs, erang is the most singular, being an invention confined to the Australians. Government. In addition to the central federated government (see AUSTRA- AUSTRALIA lature of its own. The governors are a governor, administration, and a Legislature of its own. appointed by the King, and all acts a governor, administration, and a Legispassed by the Colonial Legislatures must receive the royal assent. Each Legisla- The governors are ture consists of two houses, a Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembly, the lower house being elected. The legislative power of the Commonwealth is vested in a Federal Parliament which consists of the King, represented by the governor-general, a Senate, and a House of Representatives. The Senate consists of six senators for each of the original states, chosen for six years. The House of Representatives consists theoretically of twice as many members as there are senators. The House continues for three years from the date of its first meeting, unless sooner dissolved. Elections are on the basis of universal suffrage, male and female. The executive power is in the the basis of universal suffrage, male and hands of a governor-general, who is assisted by an executive council. There is hands of a governor-general, who is asno established Church in any of the colonies. The denomination which numbers most adherents is the English or Anglican Church, next to which come the Ro- most adherents is the English or Angliodists. Education is well provided for, instruction in the primary schools being, man Catholics, Presbyterians, and Methin some cases, free and compulsory, and the higher education being more and universities in Melbourne, Sydney, and more attended to. There are flourishing Adelaide. more attended to. There are flourishing product is wheat, of which there was a total acreage in 1918 of 9,774,658, with a Industries. The chief production of 114,733,584 bushels. Other agricultural important crops are oats, barley, maize, hay, potatoes, sugar cane, and fruit. The total acreage of all crops in 1918 was 14,298,982, and the total value of production in that year was £57,967,307. The production of wool in 1917 and 1918 amounted to 573,864,083 pounds, valued production of wool in 1917 and 1918 in 1918 was valued at £26,333,000, of which the gold produced amounted to £5,408,000, silver and lead £6,105,000, which the gold produced amounted to in 1918 was valued at £26,333,000, of £6,124,000. establishments employing about 330,000 hands. The value of the output in 1917 There are about 16,000 manufacturing was £206,386,646. at £93,485,050. The exports were valued at £106,805,895. The chief imports were The imports in 1918-1919 were valued textiles, metal manufactures, wearing apparel, drugs and chemicals, and paper. flour, skins and hides. For more deparel, drugs and chemicals, and paper. The chief exports were wool, wheat, AUSTRALIA commerce of the various states, see the titles of these states.
History. It is doubtful when Australia was first discovered by Europeans. Between 1531 and 1542 the Portuguese published the existence of a land which they called Great Java, and which corresponded to Australia, and probably the first discovery of the country was made by them early in the 16th century. The first authenticated discovery is said to have been made in 1601, by a Portuguese named Manoel Godinho de Eredia. In 1606, Torres, a Spaniard, passed through the strait that now bears his name, between New Guinea and Australia. Between this period and 1628, a large portion of the coast line of Australia had been surveyed by various Dutch navigators. In 1664 the continent was named New Holland by the Dutch Government.
In 1688 Dampier coasted along part of Australia, and about 1700 explored a part of the W. and N. W. coasts. In 1770 Cook carefully surveyed the E. coast, named a number of localities, and took possession of the country for Great Britain. He was followed by Bligh in 1789, who carried on a series of observations on the N. E. coast, adding largely to the knowledge already obtained of this new world. Colonists had now arrived on the soil, and a penal settlement was formed (1788) at Port Jackson. In this way was laid the foundation of the future colony of New South Wales. The Moreton Bay district (Queensland) was settled in 1825; in 1835 the Port Philip district. In 1851 the latter district was erected into a separate colony under the name of Victoria. Previous to this time the colonies both of Western Australia and of South Australia had been founded -the former in 1829, the latter in 1836.
The latest of the colonies is Queensland, which only took an independent existence in 1859. The discovery of gold in abundance took place in 1851, and caused an immense excitement and great influx of immigrants. The population was then only about 350,000, and was slowly increasing; but the discovery of the precious metal started the country on that career of prosperity which has since been almost uninterrupted. Convicts were long sent to Australia from the mother country, but transportation to New South Wales practically ceased in 1840, and the last convict vessel to West Australia arrived in 1868.
Australia in the World War. - The declaration of war on the part of England against Germany reached Australia by cable early in the day on Aug. 5, 1914.
Parliament was not in session, but the spirit of the people rose at once to the AUSTRALIA. great occasion and the Prime Minister, Hughes, offered the government at home an immediate draft of 20,000 men. At the first call a much greater number responded and nation-wide training was begun. Before any troops were ready for embarkation the national spirit had stimulated the enrollment of a further contingent of 10,000 men. The first embarkation for Europe by way of Egypt and the Suez Canal the following end of November had already been preceded by naval operations against the enemy in southwestern waters.
With the co-operation of the New Zealand troops, the first contingent of which was formed about the same time as that of Australia, the German wireless chain in the Pacific had been destroyed and Germany deprived of all her holdings in that part of the world. In the latter part of August German Samoa was taken, and by the end of September New Pommern (New Britain). During the formation of the first contingent in Australia national patriotism rose to a fever pitch, a spirit which was afterward splendidly reflected in the performance of her sons in the trench and field. Much of their fighting was to be done in connection with the New Zealanders, the combined forces being known under the popular name of Anzacs, i. e., Australia- New Zealand Army Corps. The nation stood behind its troops. From the day of the announcement of war contributions came pouring in. Several million dollars were at once donated, besides large contributions of horses and general supplies by rich Australians-of whom there is a large contingent. A most remarkable feature of the national situation was that the enthusiasm of the hour so carried away a large number of German residents in the country that they at once became naturalized and pledged their support to their adopted country. A change of ministry in the month following the outbreak of war did not in any way affect the general situation. The Laborites, who succeeded the Liberals, continued the forwarding of war preparations with equal enthusiasm, although the two parties continued to oppose one another in Parliament with unabated vigor.
Following the first contingent, more than 20,000 men which the nation sent to Europe in November (1914), a second expeditionary force of 25,000 was embarked a month later. Meantime a third force of 20,000 men had been called for, and was being rapidly recruited. A popиlar call for all able-bodied men to enlist for the firing-line and for all others to join rifle clubs was being responded to AUSTRALIA enthusiastically. Public speakers were stirring up the people everywhere.
In the spring of 1915 the Australian troops troops first made themselves a name in the history of the war by taking part in the attempt to force the passage of the Dardanelles in the latter part of April.
Landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula "they carried the fortified heights in the face of a raking Turkish fire, the positions won at that time being held throughout the campaign, which was characterized by consistent courage and resourcefulness." This action received high praise from the British command. It was soon announced that Australia would be able to send 100,000 more men across seas. In less than a year up to July, 1915, the Commonwealth had furnished approximately 100,000 troops. Australia was also foremost from the first in Belgium relief, Melbourne, in April and May of 1915, contributing £80,000 as the proceeds of two entertainments, while Sydney and its province raised nearly £500,000.
It also came at once to the front in the furnishing of munitions to the general cause, being able to announce, as early as June following the outbreak of war, its readiness to begin to co-operate. Offers had indeed been made of ammunition for eighteen-pounders to Great Britain as early as the previous September. In February of the following year, 1916, the question of conscription became important. Premier William M. Hughes was appointed a member of the Canadian Privy Council and came to Canada and conducted a vigorous campaign in its favor as afterward in England. The Labor party in New South Wales, Queensland, and Victoria, however, was opposed, and after a sharp struggle the more radical elements failed and the measure was defeated by popular vote on Oct. 28. Australia had by this time 320,- 000 enlisted men in the ranks. Before the close of the war more than 362,000 volunteers had been sent to the firing-line. They entered the war on the British front in April, 1916, and soon acquired a name for a dauntless courage which inspired the older troops. In the battle of Messines Ridge following the defeat of the Germans at Ypres in June they took a prominent and notable part in the of fensive of combined English, Irish, and New Zealand troops which "within a few minutes captured the entire first line positions on a ten-mile front." In the great battle of Arras, May, 1916, they distinguished themselves by capturing Bullecourt (May 13-17) after heavy fighting. They were also conspicuous in the Allied drives, notably, besides those men- AUSTRALIAN ALPS tioned, at Mouquet Farm and Pozières.
In the advance of the Germans on the salient which threatened Amiens in the spring of 1918 the five Australian divisions played an important part. At two important points, Derlancourt and Morlancourt, before their line could be properly organized and before their guns had all arrived, they were persistently attacked by the Germans and yet always succeeded in driving them back with heavy loss. The Australian forces engaged in those important campaigns were old and well-tried troops who were of notable value all through the engagement which resulted in the repulse of the Germans.
In the first four years of the war Australia raised six war loans. From August, 1914, to June 30, 1918, her war expenditure amounted to 184,598,097 pounds sterling, of which £159,895,938 was from loans, and the balance revenue.
The sum advanced by the Imperial Government amounted to £47,500,000. In addition a Wheat Commission was organized under Premier Hughes with a regular service to England that contributed large supplies during the term of its operation. On the sea the Australians took a glorious part in the engagement off Dogger Bank-the principal naval event of the war-under Admiral Beatty Jan. 24, 1915, and later in the Battle of Jutland Bank. Out of a total population of six million people the Australia-New Zealand Army Corps, up to January, 1918, had contributed more than 448,000 men, of the very best material of which the Allied fighters were composed.
The conditions following the conclusion of peace in 1919-1920 were the same as prevailed in other countries of the world.
There were labor troubles, and for a period in 1919 the industry of the country was practically tied up as a result of strikes. Alleged attempts of the Bolshevists to spread propaganda in 1919 resulted in serious disturbances. Australia was strongly represented at the peace negotiations in Paris, and the Commonwealth was given mandatory powers over island territories formerly the property of Germany. These include New Guinea (formerly German New Guinea), Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon Islands.