Belgium
a kingdom of western Europe, consisting of the former Spanish Netherlands.
It is situated on the North provinces:
Sea, between France, Prussia, and Holland. It has an area of 11,373 square miles, and is divided into the following Flanders, West Flanders, Luxembourg, Antwerp, Brabant, East Liege, Namur, Limbourg, and Hainaut.
The country is one of the most densely populated in Europe, having about 650 inhabitants to the square mile. The population is made up chiefly of Flemish and Walloons (of French descent); the two languages are officially recognized now, but, although the Flemish language prevails in half of the provinces, French is understood everywhere, and prevails socially. As to religion, the Roman Catholics predominate. Brussels is the capital of the kingdom. The trade of Belgium prior to the war was prosperous, owing largely to its excellent harbors and the natural productions of the country.
Coal, iron, machinery, linen and woolen goods, glass lace, etc., were the prinand raw material, of import. The kingdom was a part of the old Roman and Frankish dominions; and, since the Middle Ages, has been ruled successively by the Dukes of Burgundy, the Kings of Spain, and the House of Austria. In 1794 the country was ceded by Austria to France; but in 1814 Belgium was united with Holland into the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1830, however, the whole country revolted against a union with the Dutch, and the following year Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was elected King of the Belgians. Since that time Belgium's history has been quiet and prosperous. On April 11, 1900, King Leopold presented to the Belgian nation the whole of his vast tracts of real estate, scattered throughout the kingdom, for the purpose of providing ornamental parks for the public. The Kongo Free State is under the personal sovereignty of the King of the Belgians. Leopold died in 1909. Albert, second son of his brother, Philippe Eugene, Count of Flanders, succeeded to the throne. See ALBERT I.; WORLD WAR.
Politically, Belgium is a constitutional, representative, and hereditary monarchy.
The executive power is vested in the King (acting through eight responsible ministers), the legislative power jointly in King, Senate, and Chamber of Deputies. The new government that came into power in 1919 declared universal suffrage at the age of 21 years-one man, one vote. Before the European War the priests had four votes, and the landowners and nobles as many as they had estates in different parts of the kingdom. This had enabled the Catholic party to hold power forty years.
The country is divided into two sections; the N. is chiefly agricultural, and the S. industrial. Full religious liberty prevails, and grants are made from the National treasury to all denominations.
Economic Conditions. In spite of the losses and suffering during the World War, economic conditions in Belgium at its close were more favorable than those of other countries of Europe. The German Government, while it was in control, anticipating the annexation of Belgium, if the war went in favor of Germany, was careful to maintain the industrial plants and railroads practically intact. Only such machinery was removed from the factories as would be immediately useful in Germany. By the terms of the Treaty of Peace, the greater part of the machinery taken away was returned by Germany and was installed as rapidly as possible in Belgian plants, which were thus enabled to turn to operation. As a BELGIUM BELGIUM notable example of the quick industrial her from entering upon a separate politirecovery, it may be noted that by Septem- cal relation with any one of them, and ber, 1919, the coal production had reached restricted her from calling for aid ex- 87 per cent. of what it had been previous to the war. The number of miners actually at work was nearly 100,000. Not only was there enough coal to run the railroads, but Belgium apparently was producing a larger proportion of the prewar output than any of the other European countries, and it was able to export coal on account of the comparatively small demand of factories, which had only been partially reopened.
While there were strikes and other economic troubles in 1919-1920, these were settled largely through the intervention of the government through arbitration. The labor union leaders were, on the whole, conciliatory, and avoided strikes wherever possible.
The pre-war debt, which amounted to about five billion francs, had been increased in 1919 to a total of nearly twenty billion francs. German indemnities were relied upon for a liquidation of a large part of this war debt. There was payable before May 21, 1921, 2,500,- 000,000 francs.
The government set about effecting a system of taxation in order to restore the equilibrium of the budget. In April, 1919, a tax on war profits was adopted at rates varying from 20 to 80 per cent.
The retirement of the German marks and the complete restoration of the franc was completed in 1919.
By the end of the year exports were being made on a considerable scale, chiefly of coal and beet sugar. Quantities of glass were also exported, as well as matches, yarns, and textiles.
Railways. The railroads of the country were rapidly restored in 1919. A large part of the moving stock taken by Germany had been returned. By the autumn of 1919 freight traffic was nearly normal.
Army. At the time of the the signing signi of the armistice, the field army of Belgium amounted to about 204,000 men, including 8,400 officers. It was arranged to relieve this army from service for the month of November, 1919. A new law was passed fixing the effective army at 100,000 on a peace footing, and 320,000 on a war footing. In 1919 the Belgian army consisted of 365,000 soldiers and 14,050 officers.
Belgium in the War. By an act bearing date 19th April, 1839, signed in London, the perpetual neutrality of Belgium was guaranteed by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia. This treaty, which was signed by Belgium, bound her to preserve the like neutrality toward the other signatory powers held cept in the event any one of them broke the compact and crossed her frontiers.
Not for three-quarters of a century was a single step in violation of this treaty taken, although the war-cloud had been lowering over the principal continental powers for nearly half a century before it finally broke with such fury as threatened to wipe out completely the whole nation. a
Simultaneously with the declaration of war on Russia, Aug. 1, 1914, Germany crossed Luxemburg; a principality whose own independence had been guaranteed by her in concert with the other powers by treaty of 11th May, 1867, and ruthlessly invaded Belgium with the main body of its armed force. This was an initial step in the march on Paris, to which they approached within twentytwo miles but a few weeks later. On Aug. 4 the King of Belgium addressed his Parliament in a stirring speech exhorting the nation to stand firm. On that date the Belgian army had taken a brave stand against an overwhelmingly superior foe along the river Dyle, and in the immediate track of the advance on its principal cities, Antwerp and Brussels. By the afternoon of that day her pickets encountered the German force under Von Emmich, and by half past eleven that night the first cannonading of the greatest war in world history had begun. Three days later Liege was captured by the enemy, after an assault of eleven days, during which she withheld an overwhelming force, and at once made the base of supplies from which the real advance of the invasion of Belgium began. Fighting step by step and making a resistance at which the world wondered considering the superiority of the foe at every possible point, the Belgian army was forced back, and the Germans entered the capital, Brussels, on Aug. 20, within sixteen days of the firing of the first shot. The backbone of Belgian resistance was now broken and the Germans spread out and took possession of almost the entire Kingdom. The government had meanwhile been removed to Antwerp, from whence it fled to Ostend on the sea-coast, and finally set up a provisional entity at Havre, France. But one great objective remained, Antwerp, which was captured Oct. 9, 1915. On Aug. 26 Belgium was formally placed under the iron rule of the conqueror, with Field Marshal Baron Von der Goltz as military governor.
The King divided his time between his army and visits to London and Paris.
BELGIUM The capture of Antwerp was a severe blow to the heroic little Belgian army, and almost threatened its utter demoralization. But it gradually rallied under the invincible national spirit, and was indeed increased and reorganized so as to take part in the great battle of the Yser. It thence remained an important factor, in military operations, up to the end of the war. Refugees who had gone over to England, and fled to France, now returned to fight in its ranks.
One of the first acts of Von der Goltz, the German governor, was the levying of heavy contributions on the conquered cities. In addition a program of "frightfulness," as the Germans themselves called it, was inaugurated both in actual conflict and in dealing with the people.
From October, 1916, to the end of January, 1917, 120,000 Belgians were deported to Germany. Public protests and the voice of neutrals lessened the outrage thereafter in Belgium, although it continued along the German front in France.
The Rockefeller Relief Commission began an organized movement in February 1915, for the agricultural restoration of the devastated country in Belgium and morthern France. It was estimated that the total loss in agricultural districts in Belgium alone was some two hundred and eighty millions. A world-wide conference held in London a little later suggested a plan for the restoration of the country after the war. Stimulated and perhaps shamed by such endeavor, the German Government in Belgium itself began to undertake some practical measures for the relief of the people. It promised also safe conduct for American vessels laden with supplies. By September the United States had contributed six million dollars in money, clothes, and food.
The execution of Edith Cavell, which took place in October, 1915, also aroused international indignation, and must be referred to as one of the outstanding incidents of the Belgian campaign. Miss Cavell, an English nurse in charge of a training school at Brussels, was accused of assisting in the escape of prisoners from the country. After a brief confinement she was condemned to be shot by a squad of soldiers. Only one bullet struck and wounded her when the German officer in charge of the firing-squad drew his revolver and shot her dead.
English feeling was aroused to a tremendous pitch and the execution was one of the greatest incitements to outside feeling against Germany of the whole war. So far as regards the general administration of the country under German rule, however, it must be conceded that so soon as it became thoroughly settled BELGIUM under Von Bissing more moderate measures were adopted, at least tentatively. In March, 1915, General Von Bissing proclaimed that he was anxious to restore self-government to local communities and social welfare organizations, and that the German Red Cross was to be engaged in preventive work against prostitution, contagious diseases, and infant mortality.
The other chief feature of German governmental policy was an effort to put the whole situation upon at least a self-supporting basis. To this end heavy taxes, especially on absentee landowners, were promptly imposed. Nov. 13, 1915, proclamation of a monthly war-tax of 40,- 000,000 francs was made. To restore the industrial situation in the interests of the conqueror, a penalty was imposed on all Belgians who refused to return to their former trade, with severe punishment for any attempt to hinder them. Even destitution from any refusal to labor was punished. Penalties were also enacted against any attempt to boycott or hinder German goods from sale in Belgium. Several decrees against the unemployed were issued in the course of 1915, and strong measures were used by the Germans to wring every ounce of man-power in the country out of it.
The Belgian army in 1916 was assigned to defend a part of the western frontier. They had flooded their position from the river Yser and the Yser Canal so that their chief contact with the enemy was through the artillery. The little army had been reorganized and equipped by its allies, who supplied them with heavy guns for the defense, and it was fully bearing its part. Meanwhile a cavalry arm was being drilled in France for later opportunity. To the infantry had been given the charge of the water-defenses, the dykes forming the first line.
The Belgian army bore its full part in the great fall offensive of 1918 which struck the decisive blow to Germany. It had the satisfaction of aggressive return warfare on its home soil and co-operated in the restoring of Bruges, Zeebrugge, and Ostend to the crown, and later in driving the enemy from Flanders. By the latter part of October the German forces of occupation were in full retreat, and King Albert made a triumphal entry into Ghent Nov. 13, reaching his capital Nov. 22.
Under the Peace Treaty Germany was bound in advance to conform to any changes in the original treaty of 1839 which the Allies might decide to make.
The borders of Belgium were to be enlarged by recognition of her sovereignty BELGIUM over contested Moresnet, over part of Prussian Moresnet, and the circles of Eupen and Malmedy on the Prussian frontier. Germany was required to give a ten-year option for the delivery of 8,- 000,000 tons of coal annually to pay all debts incurred by the country to her allies up to Nov. 11, 1918, and to restore her art treasures. A decision of the Peace Conference June 24, 1919, allotted to Belgium the first payment from the German indemnities amounting to $500,- 000,000. Her condition at the signing of the armistice was almost unspeakable.
Unquestionably no conquered country in the whole history of modern warfare had so suffered at the hands of a foe. All of her important cities, with the sole exception of Antwerp and Brussels, had been devastated, and the whole country, despite German promises and protestations, had been systematically harried, exploited, and ruined. An idea of the extortions of the Germans may be gained from the fact that the monstrous initial war tax of 40,000,000 francs imposed on the hopelessly sly paralyzed nation in 1915 was gradually raised to 60,000,000 and an attempt was made to increase it to 75,000,000 in 1918. Special taxes of 50,- 000,000 francs on Antwerp, 20,000,000 on Liege, 2,000,000 on Tournai were imposed. The country was bled, starved, destroyed, and but for the heroic work of the American Relief Commission would have become utterly disintegrated by the close of the war.
For months after the signing of the armistice there seemed little prospect of a normal return to common trade conditions. Of her sea-going ports only one -Antwerp-was not ruinously damaged.
By the end of the year a few articles of the foremost necessity began to come in.
The losses to the railway system alone during the four years of war were $275,- 000,000. There is little doubt in summing up the whole record that Germany regarded the stubborn resistance of the heroic little Belgian army at the outset as the reason for her failure to reach the French capital, and that the severity of her treatment of the prostrate country was the result of rage and resentment. See WORLD WAR. Elections were held in December, 1919.
As a result the new Chamber was constituted as follows: Catholic, 77; Socialists, 67; Liberals, 33; Flemish "Activists," 3; Middle Class Representatives, 2; Representatives of Combatants, 3; Nationalist Party, 1. The Socialists gained 27 seats, while the Catholics lost 24, and the Liberals lost 12.
The Olympic games were held in Antwerp in August, 1920. BELISARIUS