China
or the CHINESE REPUBLIC, a vast territory in Asia, comprehending seven great divisions, viz.: Manchuria, Mongolia, Hsinchiang, Fengtien, Kirin, Heilungchiang, Tibet, China proper, or the Eighteen Provinces (Shih - pa - Shang), formerly including the island of As a consequence of the Formosa.
Chino-Japanese War, Formosa was ceded to Japan by treaty. China proper occupies the E. slope of the tablelands same laws, speaking the same language, studying the same literature, possessing a greater homogeneity, a history extending over a longer period, and a more enduring national existence than any other people, whether of ancient or modern times. When we consider its high an tiquity, its peculiar civilization, its elaborate administrative machinery, its wondrous language, its philosophy and classic literature, its manufacturing industry and natural productions, China is perhaps the most remarkable country in CHINA CHINA the world. Following are the areas and Poyang-hu, the Hung-tseu-hu, in Kiang population of the divisions in 1919 :
Sq. M.
China (proper)... 1,532,420 Manchuria Mongolia Tibet Hsinchiang 363,610 ..... 1,367,600 463,200 550,340 Pop. su; the Tsau-hu, between Nganking-fu and Nanking; and the Tai-hu. There are four great mountain ranges and six 302,110,000 or eight of lesser elevation; the Hima- Other dependencies are Fengtien, Kirin, and Heilungchiang. These have a population of about 13,000,000. 2,000,000 layas, Tian-Shan, Kuen-Lun and Altai. 1,800,000 layas 2,000,000 The Kin-gan in the N., and the Peh- 2,000,000 ling in north China, and Nan-king in south China, are prolongations of the Altai and Himalayas. The Grand Canal has very greatly facilitated the internal navigation of the country. Until lately the great annual grain-fleet, with its 430,000 tons of rice for the use of the capital, passed from the S. to the neighborhood of Peking by this great waterway, thus avoiding the storms and pirates of the coast. It connects Tien-Tsin in Chi-li with Hang-chow in Che-kiang , though the canal proper begins in Shantung, and its total length is about 650 miles.
Principal Cities. - These are Peking (cap.), with 1,000,000 or more population; Canton, Tien-Tsin, Hankow, Nanking, Shanghai, Ning-po, Foochow, Amoy, Swatow, and 30 or 40 more with a population from 800,000 to 1,500,000.
No census figures based upon official returns are obtainable, but estimates in 1900 give the following as the population of the leading ports of entry:
Canton Tien-Tsin Hang-Chau Hankau Fu-Chau Su-Chau Climate. In a country of such vast 2,500,000 950,000 area, extending from 18° to 40° N. lat., 700,000 the climate must vary greatly, and ac. , and ac 800,000 cordingly we meet the most violent exviolent ex- 650,000 tremes. The heat of summer is greater 500,000 than that at Cairo, and the cold of winter These are all treaty ports, accessible and open to commerce.
Physical Features. -A world-famous structure is the Great Wall, called Wanli-chang-Cheng (myriad-mile-wall ) by the Chinese, which was built by the first emperor of the Tsin dynasty about 220 B. C., as a protection against the Tartar tribes. It traverses the N. boundary of China, extending from 3½° E. to 15° W. of Peking and is carried over the highest hills, through the deepest valleys, across rivers and every other natural obstacle.
The length of this great barrier is , according to McCulloch, 1,250 miles. The magnificent river-system of China is represented by the twin streams , the Hoang-ho, or Yellow river, and the Yang-tze-kiang, which, springing from the water-shed, the mountains of Tibet, are widely separated in their mid-course, but enter the sea within 2° of each other.
The former is a "mighty, impracticable, furious stream" for the most part, and little adapted for navigation. But the river most beloved by the Chinese is the Yang-tze-kiang, or "son of the ocean," more correctly translated "the son that spreads," which name is only applied to it by the natives below the beginning of the delta; for above that it is called simply Ta-kiang, or Great river. The basin drained by it is estimated at 750,000 square miles. Of the other rivers that water the country, the Peiho, the Peiho , in the N. and the Choo-kiang in the S. are the most noteworthy. The principal lakes of China are the Tung-ting -hu, the more severe than that of Sweden.
Productions. Most famous among the minerals of China is jade, or yu-stone, obtained chiefly in Yun-nan. Coal , lime, and porcelain clays ys are abundant. Precious stones are said to be met with in some districts. In Yun-nan gold is washed from the sands of the rivers, and in the same province silver mines are worked; here, too, is obtained the celebrated pe-tung, or white copper. All the commoner metals are likewise found in China. Near the city of Ning-po are extensive stone-quarries. The tea -plant (Thea viridis and Thea bohea) is the most important vegetable production of China. The tallow-tree (Stillingia sebifera), the Dryandra cordata, or vanishtree, the camphor-tree (Laurus Camphora), the China pine (Pinus Sinensis), the China banyan (Ficus nitida), funeral cypress, and the mulberry are among the most important trees of China. The cocoanut and other palms flourish on the S. coast. Of the bamboo there are 63 principal varieties; and it is said that the bamboos of China are more valuable than her mines and, next to rice and silk, yield the greatest revenue. The various uses to which they are applied is truly astonishing. The fruits of both the tropical and temperate zones, apples, grapes, pomegranates, mangoes, pineapples, three species of orange, the lichi, etc., are found in the country; and camellias, azaleas, and gardenias are natives of the "Flowery Land."
CHINA Finances and Commerce. - The total imports of China in 1918 amounted to £145,658,383, and the exports £127,554,- 295. Japan ranks first in foreign trade, having over 50 per cent.; the British Empire has over 23 per cent., and the United States about 4.5 per cent. The chief articles of import are cotton goods, metals, rice, cigarettes, coal, and fish.
The chief articles of export are silk, raw and manufactured; raw cotton; bean cake; bean oil; hides; tea; and tin. In addition to her overseas trade, China has an extensive coast and river trade, in which under special regulations, vessels under foreign flags are allowed to participate. In 1918 1,601 vessels were registered, of which 354 were foreign and 1,247 Chinese.
The present foreign debt of China is largely a matter of conjecture, as many secret loans have been negotiated by more or less responsible administrations.
The Tuan-Chi-Jiu administration has been the greatest offender in this respect, as it borrowed recklessly from Japanese sources in order to repress the southern rebellion. As far as is known, the foreign debt secured by government revenue outstanding on Dec. 1, 1916, amounted to about $860,000,000. The revenue for 1916 was $472,838,584, and the expenditures were the same.
Manufactures. The manufactures of the Chinese are silk, cotton, linen, and pottery, for which latter they are especially celebrated. The finest porcelain is made in the province of Kiang-si. The Chinese invented printing in the beginning of the 10th century, and in 932 A. D. a printed imperial edition of the sacred books was published. The skill of the Chinese in handicraft is astonishing. Of the grand modern discoveries in the physical sciences the Chinese are profoundly ignorant, and the study of nature is altogether neglected.
Railways. In 1919 more than 6,000 miles of railway had been completed and opened to traffic in China. These figures include the province of Manchuria. 2,273 miles were under construction in 1917-1918. Much greater mileage had been planned, but the construction was held up during the World War and has been hindered since then by the civil war that has spread over half the area of the Republic. The railroads now in operation have already had a marked effect upon mining and industrial development, and with the enormous population and resources of the country are assured of becoming profitable enterprises. What is needed is foreign capital, and this was arranged for at Paris on May 12, 1919, in a conference by CHINA American, French, British, and Japanese bankers. These banking groups have combined for the making of loans to China, the payment of the interest and capital of which shall be a first lien upon the resources of the nation.
Religion. Three forms of belief, the Confucian, the Buddhist, and the Taoist, may be considered the National religions, as they are believed in, more or less, by the great mass of the people. Of these the Confucian and the Taoist are indigenous, but Buddhism was introduced from India. Confucianism is the basis of the social life and political system of the Chinese. It has been professed by all their greatest men, and is still the sole belief of the educated classes. It is, however, less a religion than a philosophy and does not pretend to treat of spiritual things; hence room was left for other creeds to supply its deficiencies in this respect. Temples belonging to the three religions are very numerous.
Those dedicated to Confucius are funereal in character. The Buddhist temples are crowded with images, and Buddha is represented expounding his doctrine to attentive listeners. The many-storied tower takes the place of the bell-shaped pagoda or relic-shrine of other Buddhist countries.
Education. The educational system is divided into secondary and primary schools, the former being directed under the central government and the latter under the provincial governments. Universities, technical colleges, and higher normal schools are directed under the board of education of the central government; and middle schools, lower normal schools, and primary schools are under the control of the provincial governments. When the educational system is finally perfected, there will be 4 universities, one each in the N., center, W. and S. Capitals of provinces will have technical colleges of law, industry, and medicine, and higher normal schools. Lack of funds has prevented carrying out a complete system of education. The historic system of examinations was abolished by a decree of Sept. 3, 1905. There are over 5,000,000 pupils undergoing instruction in the schools of the Republic. The United States returned to China the surplus of the indemnity of 1900 awarded on account of the Boxer trouble, amounting to about $10,000,000 on condition that this sum should be spent in preparing and sending students to the United States to receive their education.
More than 300 students, including a few women, have been sent under these conditions. There are several universities for higher education. These include the CHINA Peking Government University, estab- October, 1907, an additional decree was lished in 1898 and reorganized in 1917.
There are at Tien- Tsin a Chinese university, a preparatory department, an Anglo-Chinese college, an industrial school, school , a general medical college, and other educational institutions. There is also a Union Medical College in Peking, and the Rockefeller Foundation has granted CHINA issued ordering the formation of 36 divisions in the various provinces of the Empire for 1912. Recruiting for this army was on the principal of modified conscription. The terms of service were 3 years with the colors, 3 in the first reserve, and 4 in the 2d reserve, or a total of 10 years. The modified form جم THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA large sums to the Shantung Christian University at Tsinganfu, the Hunan-Yale Medical College at Changsha, and to the Harvard Medical School at Shanghai.
Government. The Republic of China is composed of a president, a vice-president, and a bi-cameral legislature, consisting of a senate of 264 members and a house of representatives of 596 members. The central government has, howhas, how ever, little real power. The provincial governments are carried on with little regard to the central power at Peking.
An attempt was made in 1913 and in succeeding years to bring the whole provincial and local administration under control and make it responsible directly to the central government. The breaking out of civil war between the north and the south resulted in the loosening of all central power. In 1920 the military governments were practically supreme and were almost uncontrolled in their respective spheres. The president for 1920 was Hsu-Shih-shang, elected president Aug. 10, 1918, and inaugurated Oct. 10, 1918. There is a premier nominated by the president and a cabinet of 9 members, nominated by the premier.
All appointments require the sanction of both houses of parliament.
Army. The creation of an army on modern lines was undertaken on January, 1905, by an imperial decree, and in of conscription came into effect on Jan. 1, 1915. The 36 divisions were to comprise about 10,000 men each. This plan was partially carried out, but the number of men in the army never exceeded about 180,000. All military forces are theoretically under the control of the ministry of war and are paid by the central government. The provincial governors have control of the police and of the provincial militia. In late years the military governors have paid little attention to the provisions of the military law but have recruited armies as they needed them. It was estimated that in 1919 the total Chinese military forces numbered 1,200,000.
Navy. The navy is small. It comprises a cruiser of 4,300 tons, 3 cruisers of 3,000 tons, 4 modern gunboats, 16 smaller river and other gunboats, and 3 modern and about 20 old torpedo boats. torpedo boats .
There are no naval bases of any importance.
A People and Customs. -Ethnologically, the Chinese belong to that variety of the human species distinguished by a Mongolian conformation of the head and face, and monosyllabic language . tawny or parchment-colored skin, black hair, lank and coarse, a thin beard, oblique eyes, and high cheek -bones are the principal characteristics of the race. The average height of the Chinaman is about CHINA equal to that of the European, though his muscular power is not so great; the women are disproportionately small, and have a broad upper face, per face, low nose, and linear eyes. The Chinese are, as a race, unwarlike, fond of peace and domestic order, capable of a high degree of organization and local self-government, sober, industrious, practical, unimaginative, literary, and deeply imbued with the mercantile spirit. The worship of ancestors is a prominent feature in their social life, and is dictated by that principle of filial piety which forms the basis of Chinese society. The rich have in their houses a chamber, a kind of domestic sanctuary, dedicated to their forefathers.
Tablets, representing the deceased persons, and inscribed with their names, are here carefully preserved; and at stated seasons prostrations and ceremonials are performed before them according to the "Book of Rites." In China, marriage is universal and within the reach of all; but there is a strict separation of the sexes, and betrothal is undertaken by the parents or by professional match makers.
Language and Literature. - The Chinese language belongs to those Asiatic languages commonly called monosyllabic, because each word is uttered by a single movement of the organs of speech, and expresses in itself a complete idea or thing. All Chinese words in the Peking tongue end either in a vowel, a diphthong (in which, however, each vowel sound is distinctly pronounced, making the word often to appear of more than one syllable), or a nasal. Of such simple words or roots there are about 450. But the accent of many of these words may be varied by the speaker in four or five different ways, so as to produce a corresponding variety in their meaning, by which means the number of simple words or roots amounts to about 1,200. The relations of words are ascertained by their position in a sentence. Hence Chinese grammar is solely syntax. In Chinese the written character, generally speaking, does not indicate the sound of the word, but gives a hieroglyphic or pictorial representation of the idea or thing to be expressed. Hence, there are required as many of these characters or symbols as there are ideas to be represented. Since many words similar in sound are different in signification, while in writing each idea has its peculiar symbol, the number of words represented by writing, without reckoning those peculiar to certain dialects, is perhaps 10 times greater than those distinguished by the ear. The number, in fact, is reckoned at 50,000. In writing CHINA and printing the characters are arranged in perpendicular columns, which follow one another from right to left. In its origin Chinese writing is hieroglyphic or picture-writing, with the addition of a limited number of symbolical and conventional signs; the larger number of Chinese characters are formed by the combination of such hieroglyphs and signs. But as one such character by itself seldom determines the sound, an additional word is conjoined for the purpose; so that the great mass of Chinese written words consist of an ideographic and a phonetic element. Native grammarians divide their characters into six classes. The Chinese literature, from a geographical, ethnographical, and historical point of view, is unquestionably the most comprehensive and important of the whole of Asia. The printed catalogue of the Emperor Kien-lung's library is composed of 122 volumes; and a selection of the Chinese classics, with commentaries and scholia, which was begun by the order of the same emperor, is said to comprise 180,000 volumes, of which, in the year 1818, 78,731 volumes had already appeared. In the five canonical or classical books called "King" are contained the oldest monuments of Chinese poetry, history, philosophy, and jurisprudence, e, some portions of which belong belong , perhaps, to the most ancient writing of the human race. Confucius, in the 6th century в. c., collected them from various sources, and in this collection they have been pretty faithfully handed down. Amid all their scientific labors the Chinese have not neglected the art of poetry, in which they possess voluminous collections that have yet to be made known to Europe. In lyrical poetry the most distinguished names are Li-tai-pe and Tu-Fu, both of whom flourished at the beginning of the 8th century A. D. The romantic poetry of the Chinese, though void of poetic beauty, is valuable for the insight it gives into their domestic life.
History. The legendary history of China would make it the oldest of nations. There is good reason to believe that it has an authentic history exceeding 4,200 years. The exact age when Fo-Hi, the benefactor of his country, and the founder of the silk industry, flourished cannot be told, but it was before 2375 B. C. The name of the country among all the W. nations has been always associated with silk. The Chinese of that early time were astronomers; they recorded phenomena which occurred 2375 в. c., and their record proved correct. The Emperor Yu (1991 B. c.) rendered the Great Plain habitable by run- CHINA ning the Hoang-ho into a new channel.
Confucius lived and taught 571-544 в. c.
Shi Hoang-Ti (246-210 B. C.) is the greatest of their heroes; he expelled the Mongols, built the Great Wall, and burned most of the National literature.
He was the founder of the Tsin dynasty.
Buddhism was introduced A. D. 65. The next 1,200 years were prolific of wars between the Chinese and the Mongols, the latter conquering in 1279 and holding the country till 1368. Then the Ming (native) dynasty regained power, and held it till 1644. The Manchus succeeded, and have held the power till now.
In the 19th century they had wars with Great Britain and France (1857-1860); the great Tai-ping rebellion, lasting 14 years; a Mohammedan rebellion in Yunnan lasting 23 years, and another in eastern Turkestan lasting 11 years; war with France (1884-1885), and war with Japan (1894-1895). Russia's occupation of Port Arthur, early in 1898, was followed by the signing of the Russo-Chinese Convention at Peking on March 27, 1898. In substance it leased to Russia Port Arthur and Talien-Wan, together with their adjacent waters, for the term of 25 years from the date of signing of the convention, but provided that at the conclusion of the term it may be prolonged by mutual agreement between the contracting parties. The district (territorial and maritime) is to serve as a depot of military and naval supplies to Russia, and the principal officials_administering its affairs are to be Russians. The contracting parties agree to regard Port Arthur as a naval station, to be used by Russian and Chinese ships only, and neither the menof-war nor the merchantmen of any other power shall have access to it. In the same article (No. 6) it says: "Similarly, in case of Talien-Wan Bay, one part shall serve as a naval station for the warships of China and Russia, but the rest shall be a commercial port, open for the ingress and egress of the ships of all nations." In view of the importance of Port Arthur and Talien-Wan, Russia undertook to construct, at her own expense, required, and to adopt whatever other means were necessary for the defense of those places. Russia is permitted to construct a railway from a point on the Trans-Asian trunk road (for the building of which China gave her consent in 1896) to Talien-Wan, all the details of construction to be in accordance with the Chinese system of Manchurian lines; and a branch of the road may be carried from some place midway between whatever barracks and forts might be CIIINA New-Chwang and the Yalu river to a convenient point on the sea-coast.
Before the convention with Russia was signed France demanded that China should not cede any portion of the four provinces of Kwang-Tung, Kwang-Si, Yun-Nan, and Kwei-Chau, that the railroad from Lung-Chau-Ting, on the N. frontier of Tonquin, should be extended by way of Pase, Siam, into the Yun-Nan province, and that a coaling station be granted to France at Lei-Chau-Fu, in the Hen-Chau Peninsula (N. of Hai- Nan).
Early in 1898, the British Minister, in conference with the Chinese foreign office, demanded a compensatory concession for the purpose of maintaining the balance of power in the Far East, and on April 2 he obtained a lease of the islands and waters of Wei-Hai-Wei on the same terms as those by which Russia had secured Port Arthur; and on May 24, the English occupied the port.
On June 9, China ceded to England territories on the main-land opposite Hong- Kong, including the island of Lau-Tao and all the peninsula to a line joining Mirs bay and Deep bay, both of which are included in the lease, China retaining the N. shores. In September, 1898, the emperor issued a number of edicts advocating reforms after European methods in the financial and general administration of the central and provincial governments. These met with the severe disapproval of Tsu-Hsi, the Empress Dowager, and her strong anti-foreign party on the Court. On Sept. 22 she obtained from Emperor Hwang-Su an edict restoring the regency, which she had held previous to his accession in 1889; retired him on a pretense of illness; assumed charge of the government, and decapitated the leaders of the reform party, degraded others, and kept the rest fear of a similar fate.
In September, 1899, Secretary Hay instructed the United States representatives in England, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, and Japan to invite from those governments a presentment of their intentions in regard to the treatment of the commerce of foreign powers in the newly acquired spheres of influence, with special reference to the treaties existing between China and the United States, advising that China be regarded as heretofore as an open market for the world's commerce, and that all possible steps be taken to establish much-needed administrative reforms and to preserve and strengthen the Imperial government in its integrity. On March 20, 1900, Secretary Hay announced that all the powers concerned had accepted the proposals CHINA of the United States, and that he would consider their consent final and irrevocable.
The intense anti-foreign sentiment among the Chinese reached a crisis in the Boxer uprising of 1900. The murder of many of the missionaries in the N. provinces, and finally the isolation of Peking and the siege of the legations, called for forceful intervention on the part of the powers. The first international relief expedition under Admiral Seymour left Taku on June 10; was unable to reach Peking, and was forced back by the Boxers. It was only able to retreat with the greatest danger and difficulty, and but for timely re-enforcement would undoubtedly have been cut to pieces. On June 17 the Taku forts CHINA Boxers, who_were constantly being reenforced by Imperial troops. The court fled into Shensi before the allies reached Peking. The subsequent military operations consisted chiefly of punitive expeditions to the S. and W. Negotiations for peace were at once begun. On Dec. 4, the powers sent a joint note to the Chinese peace commissioners, to be submitted to the emperor. The note demanded, among other acts, the execution of the leaders in the massacre of foreigners and the payment of an indemnity, which in October, 1901, was fixed at $735,000,000. On the ratification of the indemnity agreement and 11 other articles of concession, the foreign troops were withdrawn from Peking.
On the close of the Boxer movement こち THE MARBLE BOAT AT THE SUMMER PALACE, PEKING, CHINA at the mouth of the Pei-ho river were reduced, having opened fire on the international squadron anchored in the bay. On July 14 the city of Tien-Tsin was taken by the allies and made the base of the international expedition for the relief of the legations in Peking, which started on Aug. 4. Peking was entered Aug. 15, after some hard fighting, and the foreign ministers, and their families, the legation guards, and the people who had made their way in safety to the legations for protection, were relieved. The raising of the siege, which had existed from June 11, was most timely, as the ammunition of the besieged was almost exhausted, and all of the foreigners were suffering greatly from confinement and the apprehension of a terrible fate in case they should be unable to hold out against the continuous attacks of the and the return to Peking of the Imperial family (Jan. 7, 1903), the Manchurian question came to the foreground. Russia's shifting policy with regard to the evacuation of Manchuria brought about the Russo-Japanese war. The result of it is that, according to the treaty of Portsmouth, Manchuria, with the exception of a part of the Liao-tong Peninsula, was returned to China (1905). In the same year a strain between China and the United States was brought about by the restriction of Chinese immigration, in consequence of which all American goods were boycotted in China. In the following year China was asked to introduce certain reforms into her administration. These were to a certain extent carried out, one of them being the abolition for ten years of smoking opium. In September, 1907, the Emperor issued an CHINA edict that within 9 years the first Imperial Parliament would be convened.
Commissions were sent to Europe to study commercial and educational matters. In 1908 the Central Government obtained increased power in consequence of a reform program arranged by common consent of the Empress mother, the Emperor and the Viceroy Yuan Shih-kai .
On Nov. 14, 1908, the Emperor Kwanghsü died and was succeeded by his threeyear-old nephew Puyi. One day later the Empress Dowager, whose influence in the Central Government was great, died. The ruler of China became the Regent Tchun, the father of the infant Emperor.
CHINA the attempted royalist coup_that he refused to resume his office. Tuan, therefore, requested the Vice-President , Feng Kup-chang to assume the office and issued a call for a new Parliament. Both of these acts were denounced as illegal by the Canton secessionists, and as the latter had been strengthened by the adhesion of part of the Chinese fleet they inaugurated hostilities against the Peking government. At first they were successful, but in March, 1918, they lost Yockow and were forced to evacuate Changsha , the capital of Hunan. After that there were alternate victories and defeats for both sides. Each had about 300,000 men under arms, but the Peking Government was better supplied with artillery and ammunition. The field of operations cov- China became a republic on Feb. 12, 1912. The Manchu dynasty had its last representative in the infant emperor Pu- ered half the area of China. Commerce emperor Puered half the area of China. Commerce yi who abdicated on that date when he was six years old. The first full President of the new republic was Yuan Shihkai, who was elected Oct. 6, 1913, for a period of five years.
The Government adopted resembled in its main lines that of the United States.
There were two houses, the Senate having 264 members and the House of Representatives 596 members. The cabinet contained nine members, the Premier being appointed by the President and the eight other members being chosen by the Premier with the President's approval.
The capital was Peking, as it had been under the Empire.
Yuan Shih-kai died June 6, 1916, and was succeeded by the Vice -President Li Yuan-hung. Shortly after the beginning of his administration, he became involved in difficulties with the legislative branch. In June, 1917, the President sent to Parliament a bill demanding war against the Central Powers.
German propaganda was busy, and the Parliament voted down the measure. Theremeasure. upon the President dissolved Parliament.
This action was declared to be arbitrary and unconstitutional, and six provinces seceded and set up a rival government at Canton. Dr. Sun-Yat-sen, assisted by Wu Ting-Fang, former Ambassador to the United States, headed the forces of the secessionists. In the meantime the Premier, Tuan Chi-jui, believing the President too weak to subdue the rebels, organized a party of his own and induced General Chang Hsun to make an attempt to restore the Manchu dynasty. The boy Emperor was in fact reinstated and reigned for the brief period of ten days, when Tuan, who seems to have played a double part, drove out the forces that he had himself urged to enter Peking and posed as the savior of the Republic . The President was so thoroughly cowed by was paralyzed, agriculture was almost at a standstill and flood and famine added to the horrors of civil war.
This internecine strife was strongly disapproved by the Allies, not only on humane and commercial grounds, but because it diminished the usefulness of China as an ally in the war against Central Powers. Strong efforts were made to compose the differences between the Canton and Peking governments .
These were brought nearer realization by the resignation of Sun-Yat-sen as the leader of the Canton secessionists and the election as President of Hsu-shihchang, an astute and sagacious statesman. He was elected Aug. 10, 1918, and inaugurated Oct. 10 of the same year.
He was moderate and conciliatory and through his efforts the factions were brought to the verge of settlement of the questions at issue between them.
Negotiations had been opened at Shanghai between representatives of the Northern Government and representatives of the Canton Government, the latter having become dissatisfied with the militaristic aims of the Kwang-si and Kwang-tung leaders. This it was expected would have led to a speedy reunion of the main factions whose antagonism had for years kept the Republic in turmoil. New problems developed , however, through the dismissal of General Hsu Chi-Cheng, Resident Commissioner of Inner Mongolia and commander on the north-west frontier. This action had been taken early in July, 1920, and was due to hostile feeling between the Reform between be the Reform party at whose head was General Chang Tso-ling and the Angy party, to which Hsu Chi-Cheng belonged. His colleagues, General Wu Pei-fu and Tsao-Kun took up arms in his behalf and threatened an advance on Peking. This created a panic in the capital. Efforts were made to CHINA compose the quarrel, and the President, Hsu Chi-Cheng, ordered both sides to retire to their barracks and enter upon negotiations. The effort was ineffective, however. Tuan Chi-jui was surprised by Wu Pei-fu's troops south of Nanynau and retreated toward the capital. In the severe fighting that followed July 15-18 the forces of Wu Pei-fu were victorious.
The demoralized troops of Tuan Chi-jui were reported as retreating toward Peking. The diplomatic corps in that city served notice on the government that Peking must not be bombarded and that the safety of foreign residents must be assured. The gates of the city were closed and martial law declared. Members of the old imperial family appealed to the foreign legations for protection as they feared that they would be made the victims of propaganda, alleging that General Wu Pei-fu was carrying on a movement for the restoration of the monarchy. A few days later the forces of Tuan were defeated and their leader made an ineffectual attempt to commit suicide.
On Aug. 28, 1920, Dr. Sun-Yat-sen, the first President of the Chinese Republic, CHINA Space forbids the statement here of all the demands, but, besides, the arrangements regarding Shantung elsewhere alluded to, they included the demands that the leases of Port Arthur, Dalny and the railroads should be extended for 99 years, that Japan should have an equal voice with China in matters relating to south Manchuria and inner Mongolia, that Japanese instructors and advisers should be employed by China and that 50 per cent. of war munitions needed. by China should be bought from Japan.
Foreign governments were alarmed at the sweeping character of these demands and asked for explanations. They were told in reply that only ten of the articles were really demands, while the rest were requests. Under pressure from her ally, Great Britain, Japan eventually modified some of the demands but remained firm on others, and, on May 6, 1915, issued an ultimatum to China and began to mobilize against her. Under the threat of invasion, China acquiesced and signed away her sovereignty, giving to Japan important concessions that in some cases extended beyond the year 2000.
The Chinese were helpless in the pres- Governor Wu-Ting-Fang and other lead-ence of physical force, but they had a ers of the Southern Government, issued a proclamation that they looked for the overthrow of the illegal government of Peking through the forces of General Tang, who was holding control over the provinces of Yunnan, Kwei-Chow, and Sze-chuen. Military headquarters for the new government were established in the eastern part of Sze-chuen. In spite spite of this, however, the Premier announced on Aug. 28 that peace with the Southern Government was an accomplished fact.
On Aug. 28 Dr. Paul S. Reinsch, former minister to China, and for several years legal adviser to the Chinese government, resigned his position. A new cabinet was appointed on Aug. 11, 1920.
Relations with Japan. Shortly after the formation of the Chinese Republic, Japan sought to enforce demands on China that practically robbed her of a large part of her sovereignty. The march of the Japanese on Tsing-tao at the outbreak of the World War had been made through 150 miles of Chinese territory.
Against this violation of her neutrality China had protested, but as she had no army or navy that could cope with the Japanese, her protests were unheeded.
On Jan. 18, 1915, the Japanese Minister to Peking presented 21 demands on the part of his government. They were made under the plea of "maintaining the peace of eastern Asia and of further strengthening the friendly relations existing between the two neighboring nations." potent weapon in the buying power of over 300,000,000 people, and this they proceeded to utilize at once. A boycott was instituted against Japanese goods which resulted in the loss of many millions of dollars by Japanese traders and in many cases led to their bankruptcy. In certain districts goods were burned and widespread disorders occurred. Japan protested, and the instigators of the outbreaks were punished. China in the World War. -The part taken by China in the World War was a peculiar one, and was largely influenced by her relations with Japan, which had never been cordial since the close of the Chinese-Japanese War. As early as 1914, China had expressed a desire to join in the Anglo-Japanese operations against Tsing-Tao, but an intimation was con veyed to her that her participation might cause complications with other powers.
China had especial reason to be incensed against Germany, whose troops had displayed great brutality during the Boxer troubles and who by force majeure had extorted valuable possessions and concessions from her in Shantung province. Again in November, 1915, she sought to range herself upon the side of the Allies, but again she was held in check by the objections of Japan. The motives that actuated the latter nation have been variously explained. By some it was thought that Japan looked with apprehension upon the development of China CHINA as a military power which might have resulted from the raising, training, and equipment of armies. Then too the con- China might advance claims in the Peace resulted victoriously for the Allies, China might advance claims in the Peace Conference that might threaten the Japanese hegemony in Asia. That this latter motive was a prominent one is CHINA ending in Nov. 1919. on the question until the war was within China's active military participation ally nil. She a few days of e in the conflict was practically offered to send an army of 100,000 men to the western front, but the offer was declined because of the lack of tonnage.
She did, however, contribute the services of 130,000 coolies, who worked behind
TEMPLE OF HEAVEN, PEKING, CHINA shown by the correspondence between the the lines in France and Belgium, and Russian Ambassador and his government, thereby released a corresponding number relating conversations the former had of Caucasians for actual fighting. She had with Viscount Motono, the Japanese was a valuable industrial ally also along Foreign Minister, in which the Japanese statesman had emphasized the necessity Foreign Minister, in which the Japanese Peace Conference. Despite this opposiion of her powerful neighbor, however, China formally declared war against Germany, Aug. 14, 1917. The governnent, in taking this step dispensed with the sanction of Parliament, which was ot then in session. The Chamber of Deputies endorsed the action nearly three months later, but the Senate did not vote by China were afforded, and the same lines in Mesopotamia and in German East Africa. Many of the British ships were manned by Chinese sailors. Despite this contribution, however, the services rendered by thought by the Allies to fall far short of what should have been afforded, and of what should have been aff Nov. 4, 1918, when the British Minister at Peking, with the concurrence of the other Allied representatives, handed to the Chinese Government a memorandum CHINA in which it was indicated where the latter had been remiss in fulfilling its obligations. It was claimed that the Boxer indemnities which had been remitted by the Allies in order to foster war industries had been wasted in party squabbles; that enemy property had not been confiscated nor enemy enterprises thwarted as they should have been; in short, that in many respects China had been lukewarm and supine. This was denied, but not convincingly. The result was that when the Chinese delegates appeared at the Peace Conference to claim their share of the fruits of victory, the burden of proof lay with them to show that they were entitled to them.
In the early stages of the proceedings at Paris, a contention arose between China and Japan on the subject of Shantung, second only in importance to the rival claims of Italy and Jugoslavia to Fiume. Shantung was of great value to the Chinese, Chinese, not only from commercial but sentimental considerations. It was to China what Mecca was to the Mohammedans and Jerusalem to the Jews, their Holy Land, the birthplace of their civilization, hallowed by memories of their great sages, Mencius and Confucius. The Chinese claimed that it belonged to them by right of nationality, that it was Chinese to the core, that it had been torn from them by force and should be returned to them as a matter of right. Kiao-Chau, an important seaport in the province of Shantung, together with important mining and railway concessions, had been extorted from China by Germany in 1897. In 1914, shortly after the beginning of the World War, Kiao-Chau was captured mainly by Japanese forces, though British naval forces co-operated in its capture. Germany had been ousted from that section of the world, and Japan remained in undisturbed possession until the close of the war. An agreement was made in 1915 between China and Japan, in which the former agreed in advance to any arrangement that might ultimately be made by Japan with Germany regarding the disposition of the territory. Japan at the same time promised that in return for certain important concessions, she would eventually restore Kiao-Chau to China. Before the Peace Conference, Japan urged that what she had taken from Germany in actual fighting ought to remain hers by right of conquest, though she still adhered to her promise to restore the territory eventually to China. This was vague and unsatisfactory, for Japan refused to specify a date for the return. She might make it one year or a hundred, as she chose.
China's contention was that her entrance CHINA into the war against Germany, even at a late date, abrogated any treaty that she had with the vanquished power_and that therefore Kiao-Chau reverted to her automatically, and that the railway and mining concessions were likewise abrogated. So strongly did she feel on the subject that her delegates asserted that they had received instructions from their government not to sign the treaty, if their claims were not granted.
Had the matter been open to free and fair debate, the decision of the conference on the conflicting claims might have been different. But it soon developed that the Allied powers were pledged in advance to support the claims of Japan. It was wholly unknown to the American delegates that a treaty had been entered into in 1917, between Japan and Great Britain, Russia, France, and Italy, by which the four latter Powers agreed to support Japan's claims at the Conference in reference to Shantung, in return for Japan's undertaking to permit China to enter the war. The existence of this secret treaty was only revealed in answer to a casual question of President Wilson. Under these conditions, it was a foregone conclusion that the decision would go against China. It was officially announced, on April 30, 1919, that the Shantung Peninsula and Kiao-Chau were to be given without reserve to Japan, who in turn was to withdraw her military forces and ultimately return to China full sovereignty over the disputed territory. The point was made that instead of doing this at the summary command of the Peace Conference, Japan should do it in her own way and at her own time as a free agent. No date was specified, as Japan objected to this as a reflection on her good faith. Besides the railroad and other concessions that she held as the legatee of Germany, Japan was to be allowed to establish a settlement at Tsing-tao, south of Kiao-Chau. The decision aroused great resentment among the Chinese delegates. They cabled to Peking for instructions and were told not to sign the treaty, the intimation being given that if they did, their lives would not be safe on their return to China. Excitement and disorders broke out in Chinese cities and protests poured in from Chinese communities and associations all over the world. A special additional commission was sent to Paris to urge the Conference to reconsider its decision. Members of the commission expressed the conviction that if Japan controlled the rich Shantung province, with what was considered the best seaport of the Republic, she would soon dominate northern China, CHINA SEA CHIOGGIA gradually extend her control to southern Washington, where he served until 1916. China, and then, when she felt strong enough, proclaim a Monroe Doctrine of the Orient. Protests were unavailing, however, and the decision stood. China refused to sign the treaty.