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India (So-called civil disobedience)

1922. A so-called civil disobedience order, issued by the Indian National Congress at the instance of its leader, Mohandas Gandhi, was followed early in 1922 by serious rioting at a number of places. The order was suspended by the Congress in February to await the passing of violent Hindu feeling, but rioting continued in defiance of the leaders. The unrest of India's Moslem population, arising out of Great Britain's Turkish policy, culminated in an alliance between the Moslem League and Gandhi's supporters, the Indian National Congress, whose demands now became not only for home rule, but for the restoration to Turkey of territories taken from that country in the World War. A sensation was caused by the publication on March 8th of a message sent by Lord Reading, Indian Viceroy, to the British Home Government in which he urged the immediate revision of the Treaty of Sèvres to allay the intensity of Moslem discontent The publication of the message in England led to the resignation of Edwin S. Montagu as Secretary for India. Viscount Peel succeeded him. The arrest of Gandhi on the charge of sedition followed on March 10th and eight days later he was convicted and sentenced to prison. The non-cooperative movement went on and non-payment of taxes, rents, and loans was wideof taxes, rents, and loans was widespread, but the progress of the year brought a lull in disturbances. The Turkish success against the Greeks in August and September, 1922, aroused great enthusiasm among the Indian Moslems and a new campaign of civil disobedience was threatened in case the Western Allies, particularly England, came to new war with the Turks. The Mohammedans of India strongly disapproved of British participation in the flight of the deposed Sutan-Caliph, Mohammed VI, from Constantinople.

They accepted the new Caliph, Abdul Medjid, elected by the Turkish National Assembly. The All-India Nationalist Congress in December declared that home rule remained the most important of India's problems and that it must be won by non-violent, non-cooperative methods. A statement by Gandhi in the summer of 1922 showed that the goal of the non-cooperative movement was the complete discarding of western civilizapeasant life. INTERNATIONAL LABOR OFFICE & CONFERENCES, established under the Treaty of Versailles for the purpose of improving the conditions of labor throughout the world. States entitled to membership are those included in the League of Nations, but others, including the United States, have been especially invited to participate. General Conferences are held at least once every year, the membership consisting of four representatives from each of the member states, two of whom are government delegates and two of whom represent respectively the employers and workpeople of the member states, chosen in agreement with employers' and labor organizations. The International Labor Office, established at Geneva, is under the control of a governing body representing the governments, employers, and workers of the member states. Its functions include the collection and distribution of information on labor subjects and the preparation of agenda for the General Conferences. The Conferences may make recommendations to be submitted to the proper authorities in the several member states, but no obligation rests upon the members to adopt the recommendations made. The U. S. Chamber of Commerce is at present (January, 1923) considering the advisability of participating in the employers' section of the International Labor Office. The IRISH FREE STATE. The British evacuation of southern Ireland was practically completed in May, 1922, but internal obstacles prevented the full carrying out of the Anglo-Irish treaty arrangements till the end of the year. Ulster boundary question remained unsettled, while continued factional strife in Belfast led to strained relations and bitter feelings, with border raids, kidnappings, fighting, and bloodshed. An agreement looking to the establishment of peace and the ultimate friendly settlement of the boundary question was signed March 30, 1922, by representatives of the British Cabinet, Ulster, and the Free State Provisional Government. The Irish Free State bill by which England definitely relinquished all part in Irish affairs and by which the Provisional Government was made supreme in southern Ireland pending the first general elections under the treaty, was signed IRISH FREE STATE by King George March 31st. But the treaty with England had already been gland repudiated by Re Republican extremists under the leadership of former President Eamon De Valera, and civil war conditions were renewed throughout Ireland, with the Irish Provisional Government troops now opposed to the "rebels" or Republican army. A one-day strike of protest on the part of Irish labor, together with appeals by Irish Catholic bishops and by army leaders representing both factions, led to a temporary truce in May, and parliamentary elections took place June 16th, resulting in a sweeping victory for the advocates of the treaty. The "Republicans" at once renewed hostilities, however. Rebel forces in possession of the Dublin Law Courts defied the government and intimidated the city until overcome by Free State forces. Guerilla fighting was renewed in other places and resulted in the loss of many lives and great destruction of property, both public and private. Michael Collins, acting as commanderin-chief of the Free State army, was ambushed and killed by a rebel force on August 22nd, his death following close upon that of President Griffith of the Dail Eireann, which occurred August 12th. The new Irish Parliament met September 9th, and elected William T.

Cosgrave to succeed President Griffith. A general amnesty was offered in October, but was practically ignored by the Republican insurgents, after which sterner measures of repression were inaugurated, including the execution of De Valera's chief lieutenant, Erskine Childers, on November 24th. De Valera himself on November 28th, proclaimed his resumption of the title and powers of President of the Irish Republic, and a war of destruction and incendiarism, with kidnappings, assassinations, executions and reprisals, continued into 1923.

The Free State constitution, as adopted by the Parliament, was accepted by the British Parliament December 4th, and Timothy Healy, the veteran Nationalist leader, was at once appointed first Governor-General. The Free State was proclaimed December 6th, William Cosgrave being chosen first President of the Cabinet. The legislative power under the constitution is vested in a Parliament (Oireachtas) of two houses, a Chamber of Deputies (Dail Eireann) and a Senate (Seanad) composed of members chosen by a more restricted electorate and by methods intended to secure representation for important interests and institutions of the country, in addition to all the universities. The ITALY first Senate, outside of the university members, was nominated partly by the President of the Cabinet and partly elected by the Dail Eireann. The executive power in the Irish Free State is vested in a cabinet or Executive Council whose President is chosen by and from the Dail Eireann in accordance with the usuages of all parliamentary government.

ITALY. (The Fascisti: Revolution of 1922.) The first so-called Fasci di Combattimento, composed of ex-soldiers of the World War in northern Italy, were formed soon after the conclusion of the war for the purpose of compelling the Italianization of the newly annexed provinces at the head of the Adriatic Sea. Members of the bands took an active part in d'Annunzio's attempt to secure Fiume for Italy in 1919 and 1920.

In internal affairs, the same nationalist ideals which prompted the demand for a strong foreign policy led to the formation of Fascista bands whose primary object was opposition to the tide of antipatriotic communism which was then sweeping triumphantly over Italy, attended by numerous subversive disorders in the face of which the government stood apparently intimidated. The methods of the Fascisti were those of direct action in its most primitive forms of personal force and violence, and a bitter internal struggle ensued between the new organization and the Socialist Party, the Fascisti rapidly gaining in power not only in comparison with the movement, weakening Socialist mo movement, but with reference to the national government itself, whose authority soon came to be openly defied by the Fascisti leaders. In the May elections of 1921 thirty-five Fascisti had won seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and in November of that year the organization formed itself into a political party, its avowed aim being to govern the country by constitutional means if possible, but by force if necessary. During 1921 and 1922 cities were repeatedly occupied by armed forces on the pretense of putting down strikes and disorders, and in March of the latter year Fascista forces again seized Fiume, which had been made a free city by treaty. Inability to deal with Fascista violence led to the fall of the government of Premier Facta as early as July, 1922, but this was followed by its temporary restoration and martial law was proclaimed in six provinces in an effort to put an end to the disorders. The Fascisti, however, continued to grow, even drawing adherents from the ranks of labor by promise of an altered attitude JAPAN toward labor organizations if the latter would withdraw from the Socialist party.

Following the suppression of a general strike in August, the Fascisti organization with armed forces now numbering half a million men was recognized by a large part of Italy as the actual source of government in the country and it now moved forward rapidly to assume full control. A virtual ultimatum was sent to the government demanding a general election in December with such changes in the electoral law as would give the Fascisti full control of the Parliament without the need of governing by coalitions, and a congress held at Naples, October 24th, ordered a general mobilization of Fascisti forces with the avowed purpose of marching on Rome and taking possession of the government by force if necessary. Benito Mussolini, the Fascisti leader, had already been offered a place in the cabinet, but his demand was for absolute control. On October 26th, Premier Facta resigned a second time, and two days later King Victor Em- J