Irak
KINGDOM OF. (See MESOPO- ΤΑΜΙΑ.) IRISH FREE STATE. Elections under the Irish Home Rule Act of 1920 were held in northern and southern Ireland in May, 1921, resulting in the carrying of the Southern Parliament by Sinn Fein candidates in almost every constituency.
Since these candidates were pledged not to serve, however, the Southern Parliament was not convened. Conditions of warfare between the Republican sympathizers and the British authorities continued with little interruption till July, looking to the calling of an authorized conference to establish permanent peace continued through through September, with several interruptions, the principal obstacle being the question of Irish allegiance to the British Crown and Empire. A final formula proposed by Lloyd George on September 29 proved acceptable to De Valera and a conference was arranged to be held between representatives of the Dail Eireann and the British Government. The resulting treaty was signed Dec. 6, 1921, and was promptly approved by the British Parliament in spite of the opposition of Ulster. It was also opposed in the Irish Parliament by President De Valera and his party, but was finally ratified Jan. 7, 1922, by a vote of 64 to 57. The main provisions of the treaty are that Ireland is to have the same status in the British Empire as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, with a Parliament and a responsible executive. It is to be called the Irish Free State. The oath to be taken by Parliament members is to be faithful to the British Crown in virtue of the common citizenship of Ireland in the group of nations forming the British Commonwealth. The Irish Free State is to assume liability for a just proportion of the debt of the United Kingdom and to afford the imperial military forces certain harbors and other facilities in times of peace and war. The Northern Irish Parliament was given one month in which it might declare its unwillingness to be included in the Irish Free State and in that case the treaty was not to extend to it. A commission of three persons was to be appointed to determine the boundaries between north and south.
As had been foreseen, the Ulster Cabinet promptly rejected the invitation to enter the Irish Free State, and it also took exception to the establishment of the boundary commission, which it declared to be unconstitutional. On January 9 De Valera resigned as president of the Dail Eireann and was defeated when proposed for re-election, Arthur Griffith being chosen the following day. The Southern Parliament, as elected in May, was called and created a Provisional Government, De Valera and his partisans refusing to participate. Michael Collins, former leader of the Sinn Fein army, was named as premier of the Provisional Government to which Dublin Castle was delivered by the British authorities on Jan. 16. 1922. JAPAN KU KLUX KLAN REVIVAL JAPAN. Takashi Hara, Premier of Japan, assassinated Nov. 4, 1921. A liberal, he was opposed by the members of the military party, who resented his policy of conciliation on the questions arising out of matters in Siberia and Shantung. Succeeded by Baron Korekiyo Takahashi, former Minister of Finance.
On Nov. 24, 1921, Crown Prince Hirohito was named regent in place of his father, incapacitated by illness. (See also WASH- INGTON CONFERENCE.) J JUGO-SLAVIA. New constitution of kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, effective June 28, 1921. Virtually an extension of Serbian monarchy over new Jugo-Slav districts. Jugo-Slavia, a member of the Little Entente, a name applied to the Balkan and bordering states-Jugo- Slavia, Czechoslovakia, and Rumaniathat have formed a defensive alliance. Death of King Peter of Serbia (August 16), succeeded by second son, Alexander (Nov. 5, 1921), the former Prince-Regent.
K KATATHERMOMETER, a device in vented by Prof. Leonard Hill for the purpose of measuring the cooling power of bodies of air with reference to human needs and comfort. It is widely used in the study of ventilation problems.
KEMAL, AL, MUSTAPHA, Turkish Nationalist leader and founder of the Turkish government at Angora, was born in European Turkey (Macedonia), and was educated for the army at the Imperial Turkish Military School of Constantinople. In the World War he served on the Turkish General Staff and was division commander in the Gallipoli campaign against the British. Following the defeat of the Central Powers and the ocpossession of Smyrna and other portions of Asia Minor. Following the beginning of the Greek offensive, Mustapha Kemal was made virtual dictator. By a treaty with the Soviet republics of the Caucasus in 1921 he added almost half of Armenia to the Angora government, and a treaty with France, Oct. 20, 1921, restored Cilicia to Turkish control. On Jan. 1, 1922, he declared that the Nationalist government at Angora, while respecting the Sultan, did not recognize his authority as superior to that of the Turkish people.
KING, WILLIAM L. MACKENZIE, Canadian Liberal leader and premier, was born in the Province of Ontario, cupation of Constantinople by the Allies, Canada, Dec. 17, 1874. He is the grandhe went to Anatolia where the Turkish Third Army Corps was already in virtual mutiny, and, believing that the Sultan was no longer free or representative of Turkish nationality, he renounced allegiance to the Constantinople government and in September, 1919, called a Turkish Nationalist assembly at Siva, where a government was organized with Mustapha as chief. Turkish officers and soldiers deserted to his cause and he was soon able to reconquer a large part of Asia Minor. A permanent assembly, with Mustapha as president, was organized at Angora in April, 1920, including representatives from Constantinople, Smyrna, and other parts of the former Turkish Empire. It refused to recognize the Treaty of Sèvres and waged war with Armenia, with French forces in Cilicia, and, above all, with the Greeks, whom the Treaty of Sèvres had put into son of William Lyon Mackenzie, of the Canadian Rebellion of 1837, which led to the establishment of dominion government in Canada.
He was educated at the University of Toronto and at Harvard, from which he received the degree of Master of Arts in 1898 and Doctor of Philosophy in 1900. His particular interest was in social and labor problems, and he was selected as first Deputy Minister of Labor in Canada, declining the offer of a professorship at Harvard in order to accept the post. He was afterward a member of the Cabinet of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, and in 1919, following the latter's death, he was chosen leader of the Liberal party, becoming premier in December, 1921, as the result of the Liberal triumph in the first Canadian general election since the war.
KU KLUX KLAN REVIVAL. (See UNITED STATES, 1921-1922.) LASSEN PEAK LIGHT YEAR LASSEN PEAK, or Mount Lassen, California, the only active volcano in the United States. After a long period of inactivity, it suddenly burst into erup- able, s tion in May, 1914, since which date there have been several hundred minor eruptions attended by little or no lava flow, but producing great quantities of steam and dust. Volcanic dust deposits have been accumulated for miles around the mountain. Recent eruptions prove its forces still active.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS.
Assembly Meetings and Disarmament Moves. The first meeting of the League Assembly was held at Geneva Nov. 15 to Dec. 18, 1920. Forty-one states were represented out of a membership of fortytwo. The first Assembly president was Paul Hymans of Belgium. Six new members were admitted in the course of the sessions, namely, Austria, Bulgaria, Costa Rica, Finland, Luxemburg, and Albania, while the applications of the Ukraine and of Azerbaijan were rejected. Argentina announced her withdrawal from the League, following its postponement of certain proposed amendments, Spain, Brazil, Belgium, and China were elected to the four non-permanent places in the Council, the permanent Council members, as provided for by the original League Covenant, being the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, and Japan. In addition to matters of organization the principal work accomplished by the first Assembly was the adoption of the plan submitted by an international committee of jurists for a Permanent Court of International Justice; the establishment of an International Health Organization, the adoption of a program looking to the suppression of the traffic in women and children; similar steps for the better control of the opium traffic; and the passage of resolutions looking to the control of the traffic in arms. Ratification of the arms convention of St. Germain, signed Sept. 10, 1919, was urged on all nations parties to that covenant, which provides for control of the trade in arms and munitions, particularly in relation to the disturbed regions of the world. The failure of the United States, one of the signatories to the convention, to ratify it or to stop the exportation of arms and munitions, was cited particularly with sincere regret as hindering g the the full execution of the treaty.
The members of the League were further invited to limit their annual expenditures on armaments to sums not exceeding those of the previous two years, and up to the end of 1921, twenty-seven nations had sent replies. Of these, fifteen were favorable, seven unfavorable; three were inconclusive, and two of the states had their armaments limited by treaties of peace.
The second League Assembly was held at Geneva Sept. 5 to Oct. 6, 1921.
Its permanent president was J. van Karnebeek of Holland. The three new states of Latvia, Lithuania, and Esthonia were admitted to the League, and the application of Hungary was deferred. In conjunction with the Council, the Assembly made selection of the first members of the Court of International Justice, John Bassett Moore being chosen from the United States. Further action was taken toward the suppression of the white slave and opium traffics, a number of international disputes were acted upon, and a resolution was adopted for the calling of an international conference to limit the private manufacture of arms. The date for this conference was left unfixed, however, owing to the opposition of Great Britain and France, who declared it impossible to achieve any results without the concurrence of the United States and who wished no action to be taken in the matter pending the outcome of the Washington Conference. Resolutions of good-will toward the Washington Conference were unanimously adopted: the Permanent Disarmament Commission of the League was ordered to prepare plans for the control and ultimate prevention of the use of poison gas in warfare; and the preparation of a general disarmament plan was ordered to be made to the next Assembly.
Article Ten Defined. - An important interpretation of the much-disputed Article ✗ of the League Covenant was made by the second League Assembly, it being expressly declared that the article did not constitute a pledge on the part of any nation to send military forces to preserve the territorial integrity of any other.
The article was defined as a declaration of principle and an agreement by member nations not to violate the integrity of other members, with the understanding that such aggression would be punished principally by the economic boycott.
The League and International Disputes. (See ALAND ISLANDS, ALBANIA, SILESIA, TACNA-ARICA DISPUTE, VILNA.) LIGHT YEAR, the common unit of star distances, being equal to 5,860,000,- 000,000 miles. It is the distance traversed by light in one year's time.
LONG-DISTANCE TELEPHONY LONG - DISTANCE TELEPHONY.
Transcontinental telephone connections date only from 1914, in which year communication was established between San Francisco and New York as one of the features of the Panama-Pacific Exposition. Earlier than that, long-distance connections had been established between Chicago and some eastern cities; Boston had been connected with Omaha in 1909; and New York with Denver in 1911. The obstacle in the way of early long-distance telephony was the difficulty of overcoming both the diminution in the intensity of the sound currents and their distortion along the way. Repeating stations were tried at an early date, but it was only recently that instruments were devised sensitive enough to be successful in renewing the sound waves set up by the human voice; and until such instruments had been devised, distances were limited to a few hundred miles. For even with the most improved transmitting and receiving devices, the amount of energy that would be required for the continuous wire transmission of a sound across the continent is beyond calculation. Recently, however, the same vacuum tube to which the wonders of wireless telephony are so largely due has also made longdistance wire telephony as practicable and clear as telephony within a city.
By means of these tubes, variations in the diminished incoming current are made to control the variations of a large outgoing current, which thus carries on the exact impressions originally sent, but with renewed strength. In the long-distance system now established between New York and Los Angeles, Cal., there are repeating stations at Pittsburgh, MANDATES Chicago, Omaha, Denver, and Salt Lake City, where distortions are corrected and the energy of the current is restored by vacuum tube repeaters. By means of "loud speakers" at the ends of a line, words spoken or sung at San Francisco may be heard by large audiences in New York or Boston. On Armistice Day, 1921, the speech of President Harding at Arlington was heard by 30,000 persons in Madison Square Garden, New York, and by another 20,000 in the San Francisco Civic Auditorium. A "loud speaker," placed a few feet in front of and below the President, received his voice and magnified it 20,000 times before it started, while fifteen repeaters along the line to San Francisco continually renewed and magnified the current to a total amount of many billion times. A somewhat similar development of longdistance telephony has recently been put into operation by means of which wireless or radio waves are carried or guided to a certain destination by wire instead of being broadcasted through the air.
It is possible to superimpose such a service on telephone wires without interfering with their ordinary uses, thus making for greater economy in equipment, and installations for this "wired wireless" are already in commercial operation. At a recent meeting of the International Communications Conference in New York City, the members were able to listen in on a conversation being carried on between a vessel several miles out in the Atlantic Ocean and one several miles out from the Pacific Coast.
M MacNIDER, HANFORD, commander of the American Legion, 1921-1922, was born in Mason City, Iowa, Oct. 2, 1889.
He was educated at Milton Academy and Harvard College, from which he was graduated in 1911. In 1916 he served with the Second Iowa Infantry in the Mexican border troubles. In the World War he took part in five major operations, and was promoted from second lieutenant to captain, major, and lieutenant colonel. He was wounded in the fighting at St. Mihiel, France, and was cited for bravery three times in general orders. In 1921 he was elected commander of the American Legion. LOUVAIN LIBRARY. (See BELGIUM.) MALTA. Granted self-government by Great Britain, April 30, 1921.
MANDATES. Under the Covenant of the League of Nations, it was provided that certain regions formerly subject to Germany and Turkey, and not yet able to stand alone, should be intrusted for administrative purposes to the care of advanced nations acting as mandatories subject to rules laid down by the League.
Such regions or communities were divided in general into three classes: (1) Those formerly subject to the Turkish Empire, such as Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia; (2) the former German MANDATES man Pacific Islands. By the Treaty of Southwest Africa and the former German Pacific Islands. By the Treaty of Versailles, the disposition of Germany's and Associated Powers. The United be determined by the so-called Allied and Associated Powers.
The United States was one of these powers, but it having declined to ratify the treaty, the other Allies during 1920 assigned the territories in question as follows: Various portions of former German Africa as mandates to Great Britain, France, and the South African Union, and the former German Pacific islands as mandates to New Zealand, Australia, and Japan. To the last-named nation were assigned the German islands north of island of Yap, important on account of island of Yap, cable connections. The United States Government, first through Secretary Colby and afterward through Secretary Hughes, declined to recognize this mandate and asserted the right of the United States as one of the Allied and Associated Powers to be consulted in every sessions of Germany. The Japanese assignment of the former overseas possessions of Germany. Yap, important on account of The Japanese By the and the broad ground was taken that the whole mandate principle, being new in international relationships, and growing out of the World War, in which the United States had played an important part, was one in whose determination the In every case of mandate the mandatory American Government must be consulted. state is obliged to render an annual report to the Council of the League, and a Permanent Mandates Commission was established in December, 1920, to examine reports and advise the League Council.
MOB PSYCHOLOGY MESOPOTAMIA. British mandate.
Prince A mandate over Mesopotamia was conviding for the framing within three years ferred upon Great Britain in 1920, proand in consultation with native authoriprovisions for the progressive developties of a form of government containing ment of an independent state. A provisional council of state was organized, ment of an independent state. A pro- Feisal, son of the Arab King of Hedjaz, which in August, 1921, selected Pr to be the king of the new Arab state of Mesopotamia or Irak, as the Arabs call the region. The selection was confirmed mandatory is responsible for the foreign king on August 23. Great Britain as affairs of Irak and for the securing to all make reports annually to the League of the free exercise of religion. It must Nations. At a 1920, Great Britain and France entered conference in April, cessions in Mesopotamia between themselves and the new local government. Seccessions in Mesopotamia between themstrated against any special privileges in territories mandated as the outcome of by Secretary Hughes, who insisted that the war, and this stand was reiterated America must be consulted. mandate was finally recognized in a treaty between the United States and Japan, signed at Washington, Feb. 11, 1922, reserving to the American Government and its nationals equal cable opportunities and all such rights in general as would belong to it if a member of the League of Nations. Other protests made by the American Government were not directed against mandates as such, but against exclusive commercial or economic regions; and these objections were equally applicable to mandates established in regions; and these objections were equalformer Turkish territories. Treaty of Sèvres, made with Turkey, Aug. 10, 1920, it was agreed that Syria and Mesopotamia should be provisionally recognized as independent, subject to the assistance by mandatories selected by the Allied Powers, the mandatories chosen being France and Great Britain respectively. By the same treaty, Palestine was assigned to the care of a mandatory (Great Britain being selected as such) with the special object of putting into effect a declaration looking to the estabeffect a declaration looking to the estabish people. The United States not having been at war with Turkey, and not being a party to the Treaty of Sèvres, was not concerned in the disposition of any former Turkish territories; but obwas not concerned in the disposition of to certain exclusive oil concessions made in the British mandate of Mesopotamia, PSYCHOLOGY.) MOB PSYCHOLOGY.
FOREIGN RELATIONS.) MEXICO. (See UNITED STATES, 1921: public official, was born at Solon, Cortland co., N. Y., Oct. 10, 1868. He was FOREIGN RELATIONS.) MEXICO. (See UNITED STATES, 1921: graduated from the Cortland Normal School and was a teacher from 1887 to land co., N. Y., Oct. 10, 1868. He was land co. from 1894 to 1900. He was admitted to the bar in 1893, and in 1903 was appointed justice of the New York Supreme Court, becoming associate judge of the Court of Appeals in 1913. He rewas appointed justice of the New York. was nominated and elected governor of (See CROWD NAVAL LIMITATION TREATY 30 N NAVAL LIMITATION TREATY. (See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.) NAVIES OF THE WORLD.
Capital Ships. A capital ship is technically defined as a vessel of war, not an aircraft carrier, whose displacement exceeds 10,000 tons or which carries a gun with caliber exceeding eight 618.00 a inches. In November, 1921, the United States possessed 18 first-line capital ships with a total tonnage of 500,650 tons and had building or launched, in addition to these, 15 capital ships (battleships and battle cruisers) of a total of 618,000 tons displacement. Great Britain had 32 first-line capital ships with a total displacement of 811,050 tons, and had laid down 4 ships totaling 172,000 tons more. Japan had 10 capital ships, 288,320 tons, and had launched or building 7 ships of 288,100 tons, in addition to 7 further ships projected. By the terms of the Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty signed at Washington, Feb. 6, 1922, the United States agreed to scrap all its capital ships, built or building, with the exception of 18 specifically named, with a total displacement (after certain immediate changes) of 525,850 tons. Great Britain was allowed to retain 22 ships of 580,450 tons, to be reduced in 1925 to 20 ships of 558,950 tons. Japan was allowed to retain 10 ships of 301,320 tons total, while France and Italy were each allowed 10 ships with totals of 221,170 and 182,500 tons respectively, but with permission to lay down new ships with a total of 70,000 tons apiece in 1927 and 1929. No other capital-ship construction was made permissible by the terms of the treaty before the year 1931, and then only for replacements, such replacements to be limited in the case of the United States and Great Britain to 525,000 tons apiece, Japan to 315,000 tons, and France and Italy to 175,000 tons. The size of new capital ships was limited to 35,000 tons displacement and the guns of such ships to 16inch caliber. The largest capital ships afloat are the British ship "Hood," 41,200 tons, and the Japanese ships "Mutsu" and "Nagato," 33,800 tons apiece, while Great Britain was given permission by the treaty to lay down in 1922 two new capital ships of 35,000 tons displacement apiece. In the list of ships allowed to be retained by the United States were included two of the "West Virginia" class, 32,600 tons apiece, completed in 1922.
NAVIES OF THE WORLD دو The rest of the ships in the American list follow, with their tonnage and dates of replacement: "Maryland," 32,600 tons (1941); "California," 32,300 tons (1941); "Tennessee," 32,300 tons (1940); "Idaho," 32,000 tons (1939); "New Mexico," 32,- 000 tons (1939); "Mississippi," 32,000 tons (1938); "Arizona," 31,400 tons (1937); "Pennsylvania," 31,400 tons (1937); "Oklahoma," 27,500 tons (1936); "Nevada," 27,500 tons (1936); "New York," 27,000 tons (1935); "Texas," 27,- 000 tons (1935); "Arkansas," 26,000 tons (1935); "Wyoming," 26,000 tons (1934); "Florida," 21,825 tons (1934); "Utah," 21,825 tons (1934).
Auxiliary Surface Combatant Craft.- No limitation as to numbers was fixed by the treaty for light cruisers and other surface combatant craft, but the size of such craft was limited to 10,000 tons displacement, and guns carried were limited to 8-inch caliber. On Jan. 12, 1921, the United States had no first-line cruisers afloat, but had ten light cruisers under construction with a total tonnage of 71,000 tons. It had 298 destroyers built or building. Great Britain had 49 light cruisers built or building, with a total displacement of 228,075 tons; and 345 destroyers, in addition to 25 destroyers' leaders. Of light cruisers Japan had 15 altogether, and of destroyers 42 built or building.
Submarines. The treaty put no limit on the number of submarines permitted.
Their employment as commerce destroyers, however, was prohibited under the Five-Power Submarine and Noxious Gas Treaty. (See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.) The number of submarines built or building by the United States, Great Britain, and Japan at the beginning of 1921 was:
United States, 97; Great Britain, 117; Japan, 10. France and Italy were credited in May, 1921, with 62 and 23 submarines, respectively.
Aircraft Carriers. (See AIRCRAFT CARRIERS.) Merchant Ships as Vessels of War.- It was recognized by the Washington conference that the importance of the merchant marine in war is inversely proportional to the size of naval armaments, and the naval treaty therefore provided that no preparations should be made in time of peace for the installation of warlike armaments in merchant ships, other than the necessary stiffening of decks for the mounting of guns not exceeding 6 inches in caliber.
NEAR EAST NEAR EAST. A new campaign against the Kemalist Turks was inaugurated by Greece in March, 1921, following the proposal of the allied governments to modify the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres in favor of the Turks of Anatolia. Fighting continued throughout the year, with results on the whole favorable to the Greeks. An agreement made by France with the Kemalists at Angora (Oct. 21, 1921) met with bitter denunciation in both Greece and England, France agreeing to withdraw from the province of Cilicia in favor of the Turks. French evacuation of Cilicia was followed by new Turkish atrocities against Greeks and Armenians. The French home government (Jan. 6, 1922) announced that the Angora pact was not a recognition of Mustapha Kemal.
NECROLOGY.
Augusta Victoria, April 11, 1921.
Bangs, John Kendrick, Jan. 21, 1922.
Baruch, Dr. Simon, June 3, 1921.
Baskerville, Prof. Charles, Jan. 28, 1922.
Battenberg, Prince Louis Alexander, Sept. 11, 1921.
Benedict XV., pope, Jan. 22, 1922.
Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobold, Jan. 1, 1921.
Bispham, David S., Oct. 2, 1921.
Blackwell, Antoinette Louisa (Brown), Nov. 5, 1921.
Bonaparte, Charles Joseph, June 28, 1921.
Bowditch, Charles Pickering, June 1, 1921.
Bryce, Viscount James, Jan. 22, 1922.
Burroughs, John, March 29, 1921.
Caruso, Enrico, Aug. 2, 1921.
Cary, Annie Louise, April 3, 1921.
Chafin, Eugene Wilder, Nov. 30, 1921.
Chambers, Charles Haddon, March 28, 1921.
Charles I, ex-emperor, April 1, 1922.
Clark, Champ, March 2, 1921.
Coolidge, Thomas Jefferson, Nov. 17, 1920.
Croker, Richard, April 29, 1922.
Davis, Charles Henry, Dec. 27, 1921.
De Wet, Christian, Feb. 5, 1922.
Dobson, Henry Austin, Sept. 2, 1921.
Drago, Luis Maria, June 9, 1921.
Gibbons, James Cardinal, March 24, 1921.
Gomez, José Miguel, June 13, 1921.
Greene, Francis Vinton, May 15, 1921.
Hare, Sir John, Dec. 28, 1921.
Harrison, Mrs. Burton Cary, Nov. 21, 1920.
Hewitt, Peter Cooper, Aug. 25, 1921.
Hornung, Ernest William, March 22, Humperdinck, Engelbert, Sept. 28, 1921.
Huneker, James Gibbons, Feb. 9, 1921.
NECROLOGY Ide, Henry Clay, June 13, 1921.
Jastrow, Morris, June 22, 1921.
Karageorgevitch, King Peter, Aug. 16, Knox, Philander C., Oct. 12, 1921.
Korolenko, Vladimer, Dec. 25, 1921.
Kropotkin, Peter Alexeievitch, Feb. 8, 1921.
Kuropatkin, Alexei Nicolaievitch, Feb. 12, 1921.
Ladd, George Trumbull, Aug. 8, 1921.
Lane, Franklin, May 18, 1921.
Murphy, John Francis, Jan. 30, 1921.
Nicholas I, of Montenegro, March 1, 1921.
Nikisch, Arthur, Jan. 24, 1922.
Niv ilsson, Christina, Nov. 22, 1921.
Nixon, General Sir John (Eccles), Dec. 15, 1921.
O'Gorman, Thomas, Sept. 18, 1921.
Okuma, Marquis Shigenobu, Jan. 10, 1922.
Opp, Julie, (Mrs. William Faversham), April 8, 1921.
Orth, Samuel Peter, Feb. 26, 1922.
Pardo Bazan, Emilia, Countess of, May 12, 1921.
Pearson, Sir Arthur, Dec. 9, 1921.
Penrose, Boies, Dec. 31, 1921.
Peter I., of Serbia, Aug. 16, 1921.
Porter, Horace, May 29, 1921.
Potter, Paul M., March 7, 1921.
Pritchard, Jeter Connelly, April 10, 1921.
Prouty, Charles Azro, July 8, 1921.
Reinach, Joseph, April 18, 1921.
Richards, Joseph William, Oct. 12, 1921.
Robinson, William, Jan. 24, 1921.
Rosen, Roman Romanovitch, Dec. 31, 1921.
Saint-Saens, Charles C., Dec. 16, 1921.
Saltus, Edgar, July 31, 1921.
Schreiner, Olive, Dec. 12, 1920.
Shackleton, Sir Ernest Henry, Jan. 5, 1922.
Shafroth, John Franklin, Feb. 20, 1922.
Somerset, Lady Henry, March 11, 1921.
Spofford, Harriet Prescott, Aug. 15, 1921.
Stanchfield, John Barry, June 25, 1921.
Taussig, Edward David, Jan. 29, 1921.
Taylor, Bert Leston, March 21, 1921.
Taylor, Chas. H., June 22, 1921.
Thayer, Abbott Handerson, May 29, 1921.
Wade, James F., Aug. 25, 1921.
Warfield, Benjamin Breckinridge, Feb. 17, 1921.
Watterson, Henry, Dec. 22, 1921.
Wendell, Barrett, Feb. 8, 1921.
Wetmore, George Peabody, Sept. 11, 1921.
White, Edward Douglass, May 19, 1921.
Wotherspoon, William Wallace, Oct. 21, Yamagata, Aritomo, Prince, Feb. 2, NEGROES NEGROES. Members of the Negro race who moved North during the period of industrial activity and high wages caused by the World War suffered from the depression and unemployment that followed the war, but no widespread movement toward a return South developed. Large industries that employed Negroes usually were described as satisfied with them as workers and likely to reinstate them when business should revive. Rural schools for Negroes in the South are improving.
NEWBERRY CASE. Following the election of Truman H. Newberry to the United States Senate in 1918, he was charged with violation of the Federal Corrupt Practices Act, on the ground that he had spent or allowed to be spent in his behalf a larger sum of money than the law permitted in elections. He was tried and convicted by a Michigan jury, and was sentenced to two years imprisonment and a fine. The case was appealed, and on May 2, 1921, the U. S. Supreme Court reversed the decision, holding by a vote of 5 to 4 that that section of the law under which the defendant had been convicted in the lower court was unconstitutional. The case excited wide attention, more particularly as the Michigan election results of 1918 were decisive in determining the party control of the Senate during the critical period of debate on the Peace Treaty and the League of Nations following the World War. A motion was made to declare the seat vacant, but on Jan. 12, 1922, the Senate finally decided in Newberry's favor, upholding upholding his title by a vote of 46 to 41, although only after adding to the resolution expressions of severe condemnation and disapproval of the sums of money spent in the election, which were declared to be contrary to public policy, harmful to the honor and dignity of the Senate, and dangerous to the perpetuity of free government.
NITON, or radium emanation, one of the products of the disintegration of radium. The amount in the atmosphere is very small. Helium is formed from its disintegration.
NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS, luminous clouds sometimes seen on summer nights.
They are thought to be composed of fine dust particles at great altitudes in the atmosphere, shining by means of reflected sunlight. The most conspicuous noctilucent clouds on record were those observed after the famous eruption of Krakatoa (1883) by which it is estimated that about a cubic mile of rock material was hurled into the air in the form of fine dust which gradually spread through the whole earth's atmosphere.
NOXIOUS GAS TREATY NON-PARTISAN LEAGUE, a polit ical organization formed in North Dakota in 1915 with the primary object of securing a State-owned grain elevator and terminals. It grew out of a demand on the part of the farmers to be assured reasonable prices for their wheat. The organization soon numbered 30,000 members under the leadership of A. C. Townley. It entered the political field for the purpose of putting its program into practice, and in 1916 carried North Dakota, electing its candidate for governor and the lower house of the State legislature.
In 1918 it elected the entire State government and adopted amendments to the constitution permitting its plans to be carried out, these plans now including a number of State-managed institutions, not only a terminal elevator, but a State mill, State-provided hail insurance, packing plants, storage plants, and home and farm loans. Above all, a State bank was needed for the financing of the program and it was organized in 1919 for the purpose of making farm loans, financing State departments, and mobilizing State funds. Laws were passed requiring the public funds of towns to be deposited in the State institution, which was also authorized to issue bonds. But in 1920 the opponents of the League regained control of the lower house, demanding the repeal of these State-bank laws.
Large withdrawals followed, and the State bank called on its depositary banks to return its deposits with the consequence that forty of these banks closed their doors. The State bank was left without ready assets, although it was still declared to be solvent. At a special election Oct. 28, 1921, the Non-Partisan governor was recalled by the voters. In the meantime the League had spread to other States. It was organized on a national basis, with headquarters at St. Paul, in 1917, and has played a ore or less important part in the recent politics of Minnesota, South Dakota, and Montana especially. NORTHCLIFFE, LORD (Alfred C.
W. Harmsworth), leading British journalist and newspaper owner, was born at Chapelizod, County Dublin, Ireland, in 1865. He acquired control of a number of English papers and was made a baronet in 1904, being raised to the peerage the following year. The crowning success of his journalistic career was his acquisition of the London "Times" in 1908. In 1915 he achieved notoriety by his attack on Lord Kitchener's methods as British Secretary of State for War.
He visited the United States in 1921.
NOXIOUS GAS TREATY. (See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.) OBITUARY PALESTINE OBITUARY. (See NECROLOGY.) O OFFICERS' RESERVE CORPS. (See MILITARY ORGANIZATION, Vol. VI.) OILDAG, an important lubricant invented by Dr. Edward G. Acheson. It has been called the world's greatest lubricant.
OPIUM TRAFFIC. Almost all civilized nations have laws restricting the traffic in opium, but the ease of smuggling the drug into a country renders any effective control impossible in the absence of international cooperation. cooperation. By amount so requisitioned in 1920 was 226,- 590 pounds, an increase of almost 100 per cent over the amount requisitioned in 1916. This does not include importations of the raw material. China was formerly the greatest opium-consuming country, the drug being smuggled in largely from India. But an agreement entered into with Great Britain in 1911 provided for the restriction of opiumgrowing in both India and China, and the opium habit among the Chinese had been practically eliminated in 1920, according to Dr. Wellington Koo.
OPPAU DISASTER. (See GERMANY.) OPTOPHONE, a recently developed machine which "reads" printed matter by responding in different musical tones to the various printed letters of the alphabet. A blind person, by learning to recognize these tones, is enabled to read a printed book, and in actual practice the speed of reading is as high as twenty-five words per minute. The inventor of the optophone was Prof. E. Fournier d'Albe.
It has only very recently been made comthe Hague convention of 1912, it was provided that where any country has forbidden the importation of opium, other countries shall cooperate by not permitting the exportation of opium to such country.
The Hague conference was called by the United States. Only twelve countries participated, but all other countries, except the former Russian Empire, have since adhered to the convention adopted by becoming signatories to the treaty of Versailles and other treaties terminating the World War. Under Article XXIII of the League of Nations Covenant, the gen-mercially practicable. The principle on eral supervision of the traffic in opium is entrusted to the League, and a special invitation was extended to the United States by the first League Assembly to appoint a representative on the advisory committee chosen to study the situation.
The United States has become the largest opium-importing and consuming country in the world, lawful importations for medical purposes being made through requisitions by the Secretary of State. The P which its operation rests is the sensitiveness of the element selenium to light. Rays of light are reflected from the pages of a printed book to a selenium bridge connected with a telephone receiver, the whole mechanism being so arranged (in the so-called black-reading optophone) that any missing rays, namely, those which are absorbed by the black printed letters, make themselves known by musical sounds.
PACIFIC QUESTIONS. (See WASH- appropriate Jewish agency is at all times INGTON CONFERENCE.) PALESTINE. British mandate. The terms of the mandate over Palestine, allotted to Great Britain by the Supreme Council sub subject to approval by the League of Nations, were made public Feb. 4, 1921. They require that Great Britain shall use her endeavors to facilitate the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, but this without prejudice to the non-Jewish inhabitants of the country who outnumber the Jewish population considerably. An to advise and cooperate with the government in all that pertains to Jewish interests, and the Zionist Organization is expressly recognized as that agency while its present constitution continues. Jewish immigration is to be facilitated, and under this provision some 10,000 immigrants were brought into the country between September, 1920, and May, 1921, chiefly by the aid of the Zionist Organization.
Other Jewish activities have included the reestablishment by the Rabbinical Congress of the ancient Sanhedrim or Jewish High Court, to sit at Jerusalem PANAMA CANAL TOLLS PERMANENT COURT and to be composed equally of represent- to about three and one-quarter lightatives of the Ladino and Yiddish-speak- years. ing Jews of the world. The Zionist Conress in September, 1921, passed a budget PERMANENT COURT OF INTERof £
1,500,000 to be devoted to the develop- NATIONAL JUSTICE, established unment of Palestine. All these things, how- der the terms of Article XIV of the ever, but especially the encouragement given by the government to Jewish immigration, aroused the fears and resentment of the Moslem population, and riots at Jaffa in 1921 led to the temporary suspension of immigration. The report of the High Commissioner (August, 1921) states that the country is underdeveloped, of judges) was the work of an interna- League of Nations Covenant, which provided that the League Council should formulate a plan for such a court to be submitted to the members of the League for their adoption. The plan as submitted and formally adopted (by forty-two states up to the date of the first election its present population of 700,000 being tional committee of jurists named for the less than the population of the province purpose, Elihu Root being the American of Galilee alone in the time of Christ. representative on the committee and Four-fifths of the present inhabitants are largely responsible for the plan drawn Moslems of mixed race, usually termed up. The court is composed of eleven Arabs, with 77,000 Christians and 76,000 judges and four deputy judges elected for Jews, most of whom have come into the a period of nine years and prohibited country in the last forty years. Several during their terms of office from exercisseparate states have been created in accordance with racial differences and aspirations. The section cast of the Jordan river constitutes the State of Trans-Jordania and is largely under independent Arab control.
PANAMA CANAL TOLLS. Under the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901, by which Great Britain renounced the right held under earlier treaties to participate with the United States in the construcing any political or administrative functions. They are chosen without regard to nationality and are required to possess the qualifications necessary in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices or to be jurisconsults of recognized competence in international law. The original judges were elected by the Council and Assembly of the League of Nations from a list of eighty nominees designated mainly by the tion and control of any Isthmian canal several national groups of states reprebetween the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, tion. John Bassett Moore was elected sented on the Hague Court of Arbritrasented on the Hague Court of Arbritrathe United States engaged that there from the United States. when it should be built. By the Panama pute of an international character which should be no discrimination against the Although established under the League vessels of any nation in regard to the con- of Nations Covenant, the court is entirely ditions or charges of using such canal independent of League authority. It is Canal Act of 1912 Congress authorized competent to hear and determine any disthe President to prescribe tolls for ves- the parties thereto submit to it, and in sels passing through the Canal, then about to be opened, with the reservation such disputes shall apply the rules of international law and ternational law and custom, international that no tolls should be levied on Ameri- conventions, and the general principles of can coastwise vessels . Great Britain pro- law accepted in civilized nations. Comtested this provision as a violation of the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty in regard to dis- pulsory jurisdiction, recor recommended by the criminations, and the question was widely removed from the plan by the League discussed at the time, as it has continued international committee of jurists, was to be since, with American opinion divided independently of political lines. President whose stand in the matter was supported by Elihu Root and others, requested Congress to repeal the exemption clause in the Canal Act and this was done in 1914. A considerable body of opinion, however, has continued to advocate the exemption of American shipping and the Republican platform of 1920 recommended that all ships of the American merchant marine be so exempt.
Assembly, but any nation desiring to do jurisdiction as compulsory upon itself in so may agree to recognize the court's certain enumerated classes of disputes, classes and up to September, 1921, thirteen member nations had so agreed. Otherwise than this, the court can hear only such all the parties concerned in each case. cases as are submitted by agreement of Only states may be parties to disputes French or English. before the court. The official language is The formal opening of the court, which