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Italian Architecture

a style founded on the old Roman orders, and the characteristic features of the ancient buildings of Rome, which may be considered to have been initiated in Italy by Brunelleschi and the Italian architects of the day in the 15th century, and brought to perfection by Palladio and other architects of eminence in the 16th century, who flourished in the times of the Medici. In buildings designed both for public and private purposes it is chiefly characterized by the use of the Roman orders of architecture, rather as decorative than constructive features.

These are mainly obtained by the use of pilasters placed along the façade of each story of a building at intervals, each row of pilasters being surmounted by an entablature running along the entire length of the edifice, like a string course. The windows and doors were decorated with pilasters or columns, rising from a massive and projecting sill and surmounted by circular, pointed, or broken pediments, on which recumbent figures were frequently placed. The roof was partially hidden by a balustrade which crowned the edifice and rose above the attic story, and the pedestals of the balustrade generally supported statues or sculptured vases.

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PANTELLERIA I.

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Vecchio SEA ITALY 42 40 5 3 SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 0 10 20 40 60 80 100 SCALE OF KILOMETERS 120 Important towns are shown in heavy face type Railroads Canals ITALIAN SOMALILAND ITALY ITALIAN SOMALILAND. See coal prevents the full development of SOMALILAND. a ITALY, Europe, consisting in the main of a large kingdom in Southern peninsula, having a singular resemblance , stretching S. into the Mediterranean, but also including a considerable portion of the mainland and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Elba, Ischia, It is bounded on the N. and N. W. by the Alps, which separate it from Austria, Switzerland, and France, and on the N.

France, and on the N. E. by Austria; by the Mediterranean, or by the Adriatic, an arm of the former. The area, exclusive of the square miles, and the pop. (1918) 36,740,000. For adis divided into departments. By the treaty of St. Germain with Austria, main with Austria, Italy was awarded in the Mediterranean.

From 1861, when the Kingdom of Italy was constituted, till 1865, Turin was the capital, Florence was then selected, and in 1871 Rome. The largest town is Naples, pop. 697,917.

Next in order - Rome 590,960, Turin 451,994, Palermo dependencies comprise the little republic of San Marino in Italy, Erithrea in Africa, and a few islands. The islands of Sicily and Sardinia are not depenparts of the kingdom. The portion of Italy in the partition of Africa was largely lost to her in 1898 through the operations of Menelik of Abyssinia.

Physical Features. Among the principal physical features of Italy are the Alps hits. frontiers, and Alps on its N. frontiers, and the chain , which run down the middle of the peninsula through its whole length to the Straits of Messina, while numerous branches are thrown off an endless succession of wooded hills, olive-clad slopes, and fertile valleys. In the N., inclosed between the ranges of the Alps and Apennines, is a vast nines, is a vast and fertile plain interand its tributaries. Two active volcanoes belong to the kingin south Italy and Etna in Sicily. The only river of any magnitude is the Po, which has a length of about 450 miles before it enters the Adriatic. It is fed by streams both from the Alps and the Apennines. There are a number of lakes , of which the most important are Lakes Maggiore, Lugano, Como, and Garda in the Alpine region; Bolsena, and Albano in the Apennine region. Italy is rich in useful minerals , but the scarcity of mining industry. Sulphur, salt, iron, and borax are also obtained. quantities of lead, copper, zinc, silver, and marble are the chief, though small duction is chiefly developed in Sicily, Mineral Production.-The mineral pro- Production. - The mineral promont. The Tuscany, Sardinia, Lombardy, and Piederals in 1918 was as follows: mineral fuel, 2,171,397 metric tons; iron, 693,872 he production of the chief minmetric tons; sulphur ore, 253,390 metric tons; copper, 82,302 metric tons; asphalmetric tons. The total value of the mineral products in 1918 was 369,753,447 lire. There were employed in the mines 52,962 persons. resembles that of Africa, being dry and Climate. In the S. of Italy the climate burning and subject to the sirocco. In the N. regions, the neighborhood of the Alps and the abundance of water courses serve to maintain a pleasant temperatremely cold, especially in the interior of ture. Yet this region is at times exthe great plains. In general the climate of Italy is h tricts such as the rice plantations of Lombardy, the Tuscan Maremma, the healthy, except marshy dis- Campagna of Rome, and the Pontine Marshes, which give rise to exhalations Riviera coast of the Gulf of Genoa is a favorite winter resort from more N. regions. or natural productions of the soil of Italy Vegetable Products , Agriculture. The are as various as its climate. In the Alpine regions all plants belonging to temperate climates flourish, while the S.

Agriculture regions possess almost a tropical flora. the population, and the land, where not mountain forms the chief support of though the system of culture adopted mountainous, is generally productive, is in most parts defective, and large . The best cultivation, aided by an excellent system of irrigation, is found in Lombardy, Vene- , and the parts of Emilia adjoining the Po. Most kinds of cereals, including rice and maize, are cultivated, and the wheat in particular is of fine quality, but is the home consumption. Hemp, madder, is of fine quality, but is not sufficient for flax, tobacco, hops, saffron, and, in the consumption.

Hemp, madder, extreme S., cotton and sugarcane are cultivated. Fruit is the object of attention everywhere; and in the cultivation of the olive in particular Italy surpasses include oranges and lemons in the warm all other European states . The fruits regions of the S., besides figs, peaches, almonds. There is a very large production of wine, but only a few of the wines have any reputation in other countries. The rearing of live stock is ITALY an important industry. The cheese of Italy is famous, especially the Gorgonzola and the Parmesan. The total area under cultivation in 1919 was about 66,000,000 acres. The production of the principal crops in hundredweights, was as follows: wheat, 92,296,000; oats, 10,080,000; maize, 43,498,000; potatoes, 27,726,000; sugar-beet root, 28,000,000.

Other important products were rice, beans, rye and barley.

Manufactures. - The most important are the silk manufactures, Italy as regards the production of raw silk being in advance of all the other countries of Europe. Lombardy, Piedmont, and Venetia are the great centers for its preparation. Weaving is less developed.

The cotton manufactures are also centered in Upper Italy, chiefly in Lombardy, and have much increased of late. Woolen manufactures are also chiefly carried on in Upper Italy. In the iron industry the department of Lombardy stands at the head; more particularly the provinces of Brescia, Como, and Milan.

Tanning, the manufacture of linen, of paper, gold and silver wares, articles in bronze, musical instruments, the making of gloves, boots and shoes, felt and silk hats, are also considerable industries.

The manufacture of tobacco is a state monopoly. Of special repute are the cameos and mosaics of Rome, Naples, and Florence; the filigree and coral work of Genoa; the plaited straw and the earthenware manufactures of Italy generally. There are no trustworthy statistics later than 1911. Manufacturing was greatly disturbed by the World War, and by conditions which followed it.

The economic situation resulted in frequent strikes, and a movement gained impetus among workers in the metal working trades to gain control of the enterprises. The movement became so strong that the Government was obliged to pass measures providing for the practical ownership of many of the manufacturing plants plants by the men employed in them. In 1911 there were 135,461 manufacturing establishments, employing 640,856 workers. The number of unemployed in 1920 was very considerable. Constitution and Government. The constitution of the Kingdom of Italy is a limited monarchy, based upon the Fundamental Statute granted by King Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects March 4, 1848. The king, who is hereditary, exercises the power of legislation only in conjunction with a national Parliament consisting of two chambers. The first chamber is called the senate, and is composed of the princes of the blood and an indefinite number of members ITALY appointed for life by the king. The second chamber is called the chamber of deputies, and consists of 508 members, who are elected by a majority of all the citizens above 21 years of age who are in the enjoyment of civil and political rights. In 1918 suffrage was made universal for persons 21 years of age, and for men under 21 who had fought in the World War. The principle of proportional representation was enacted into law in 1919. Each province has the right of independent administration, and the executive power is intrusted to a provincial council. In each province the power of the state is represented by a prefect, who is supported by a council.

The executive power of the state is exercised by the king through responsible ministers.

Commerce. The exports and imports showed quick increase following the conclusion of peace. The imports in 1919 amounted to £660,666,054, and the exports to £207,044,952. These figures may be compared with those of 1914, which for imports were £116,933,902, and for exports £88,416,167. The chief imports were wheat, coal and coke, raw cotton, wrought iron, and steel. The principal exports were raw silk, cotton manufactures, silk manufactures, spun cotton yarn, etc. The chief volume of trade was done with the United States.

In 1920 the exports from Italy to the United States amounted to $90,420,177, and the imports from the United States amounted to $398,065,795. The imports show a marked decrease from 1918-1919, while the exports greatly increased.

Shipping and Transportation. In 1918 the total number of steam vessels in the mercantile in Italy was 747, with a tonnage of 624,125. The total length of railway lines was about 11,800 miles.

There are about 35,000 miles of telegraph lines.

Finance. The total estimated revenue for 1919-1920 was 5,699,765,528 lire, and the total expenditure, 6,256,482,917 lire.

The public debt amounted in 1919 to $11,415,932,000. The annual interest charges amounted to $459,959,000.

Education. The total number of pupils in the elementary public schools is about 3,500,000, in private schools, about 150,000, and in evening schools about 200,000. There are also secondary schools, technical schools, normal schools, and technical institutes. The public ele mentary schools number about 125,000.

There are 35 schools of agriculture, with about 1,200 students. In 1919, as a part of its reconstruction work, the Government provided for a national instituto for the instruction of illiterate adults.

ITALY Its purpose was to give instruction to demobilized soldiers.

Army and Navy. After the conclusion of the World War, the field army was composed of 12 Territorial Army Corps, subdivided into 30 divisions and 2 cavalry divisions. See ARMIES. The total stre strength of the field army at the end of 1919 was 800,000, and it was intended to reduce it gradually to 250,000. The total number of men mobilized during the war was 5,615,000. The total casualties amounted to 949,576. Of this 496,921 were dead. Special troops are maintained in Libya, Erithrea, and in ITALY steadily in these troubled times, especially ly in the struggle against the Lom- Italy, with the exception of ent part of the Frankish monarchy, and the imperial crown of the West was bard kings.

It the duchy of Benevento and the republics of Lower Italy, thus became a constituent part of the Frankish monarchy, and the imperial crown of the West was crowned emperor at Rome (961), and the year after became emperor of what crowned emperor at Rome (961), and the breaking up of the Carlovingian empire Italy became a separate kingdom and the scene of strife between Teutonic invaders. At length Otto the Great was the year after became emperor of what ST. MARK'S, VENICE, ITALY Italian Somaliland. For a general account of the modern Italian navy and its strength, see NAVY. conquered the History. The ancient history of Italy will be found under ROME (q. v.) The modern history begins with A. D. 476, History.-The ancient history of Italy German tribe who had invaded the country, was proclaimed King of Italy. In 568 the Lombards (Longobardi), a German people originally from the Elbe, led by their king, Alboin, co Po basin and founded a kingdom which had its capital at Pavia. The kingdom of the Lombards included Upper Italy, Tuscany, and Umbria, with some outlying districts. But on the N. E. coast the inhabitants of the lagoons still retained their independence, and in 697 elected their first doge and founded the republic of Venice. The power of the Pope, though at first recognized only as a kind was henceforth known as the Holy Roman Empire.

The history of medieval Italy is much taken up with the party quarrels of the of Middle and Upper Italy. In Tuscany the party of the Guelphs formed themrels and rivalries of the free republics of Middle and Upper Italy. In Tuscany the party of the Guelphs formed themselves into a league for the maintenance remained attached of the national freedom under the leadership of Florence; only Pisa and Arezzo cause. hed to the Ghibelline In Lombardy it was different, cenza, Reggio, Modena, and Brescia.

Milan, Novara, Lodi, Vercelli, Asti, and Cremona formed a Guelph confederacy, while the Ghibelline league comprised Verona, Mantua, Treviso, Parma, Pia- Commercial rivalry impelled the maritime republics to mutual wars. At Meloria the Genoese annihilated (1284) the navy of the Pisans, and completed ITALY their dominion of the sea by a victory over the Venetians at Curzola (1298).

Up till the time of the Napoleonic wars Italy remained subject to foreign domination, or split up into separate republics and principalities. During the career of Napoleon numerous changes took place in the map of Italy, and according to an act of the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the country was parcelled out among the following states: ITALY ence had long existed in the hearts of the Italian people, and the governments at Naples, Rome, Lombardy, and other centers of tyranny were in continual conflict with secret political societies.

The leading spirit in these agitations in the second quarter of the 19th century was Giuseppe Mazzini, who in the end contributed much to the liberation of his country. The French Revolution of 1848 brought a crisis. The population of M Миигили мешмислимим M N RIALTO AND GRAND CANAL, VENICE (1) The Kingdom of Sardinia, consisting of the island of Sardinia, Savoy, and Piedmont, to which the Genoese territory was now added. (2) Austria, which received the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, these having already been acquired by her either before or during the time of Napoleon. (3) The Duchy of Modena. (4) The Duchy of Parma. (5) The Grand-duchy of Tuscany. (6) The Duchy of Lucca. (7) The States of the Church. (8) The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. (9) The Republic of San Marino. (10) The Principality of Mon- The desire for union and independaco.

Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, and Modena took up arms and drove the Austrian troops in retreat to Verona. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, then declared war against Austria, and was at first successful, but his forces were severely defeated at Novara (March, 1849), when Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel. Meanwhile the Pope had been driven from Rome, and a Roman republic had been established under Mazzini and Garibaldi, the leader of the volunteer bands of Italian patriots. Rome was, however, captured by the French, who came to the aid of the ITALY ITALY Pope (July, 1849), who resumed his Germany, maintaining that she had been power in April, 1850, under the protec-attacked by France, called upon Italy tion of the French, and the old absolu- to come to her aid. Italy, however, took tism was restored. Similar attempts at revolution in Sicily and Naples were also crushed, but the secret societies of the patriots continued their operations.

In 1859, after the war of the French and Sardinians against Austria, the latter power was compelled to cede Lombardy to Sardinia, and in the same year Romagna, Modena, Parma, and Piacenza were annexed to that kingdom, which was, however, obliged to cede the provinces of Savoy and Nice to France. In the S. the Sicilians revolted, and supported by 1,000 volunteers, with whom Garibaldi sailed from Genoa to their aid, overthrew the Bourbon government in Sicily. Garibaldi was proclaimed dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel. In August, Garibaldi crossed to Naples, defeated the royal army there, drove Francis II. to Gaeta, and entered the capital on Sept. 7. Sardinia intervened and completed the revolution, when Garibaldi, handing over his conquests to the royal troops, retired to Caprera. A plebiscite confirmed the union with Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed King of Italy, thus suddenly united almost, in Mazzini's phrase, "from the Alps Alps to the sea." Only the province of Venice and the Roman territory still remained outside. The former was won by Italy's alliance with Prussia in 1866 against Austria. The temporal power of the Pope was still secured by the French troops at Rome till the French garrison was withdrawn at the outbreak of the Franco-German War in 1870, when Italian troops took possession of the city in the name of King Victor Emmanuel. On June 30, 1871, the seat of government was formally removed from Florence to Rome. In 1878 Victor Emmanuel died, and was succeeded by his son Humbert I., who was assassinated in 1900, whereupon his son succeeded to the throne as Victor Emmanuel III.

The period between the accession of Victor Emmanuel III. to the outbreak of the World War was in general one of prosperity in Italy. It was marked, however, by a long and extensive war with Turkey for the possession of Tripoli.

This ended in the annexation of that province in December, 1912. In the same year the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria was renewed, to remain in force until July, 1920. The existence of this alliance roused in Italy unusually difficult problems in 1914. By Its terms Italy was bound to assist Germany or Austria-Hungary if either or both these countries should be attacked, the view that both Germany and Austria were carrying on a war of aggression rather than defense, and therefore refused to come to their assistance. Additional difficulties were created by the fact that the chief financial and industrial concerns of Italy were either in the hands of Germans or controlled by German capital. In spite of these conditions, pro-ally sentiment continued to develop among the Italian people and this, despite the aggressive efforts of Germany, through Prince von Bülow, as special ambassador to Italy. In order to avert an open rupture, if possible, negotiations were carried on between Italy and Austria-Hungary with the object of inducing Austria to make such territorial concessions to Italy that the latter would find it unnecessary to go to war for the purpose of achieving territorial aspirations, which first of all lay in the recovery of the so-called unredeemed provinces held by Austria. These negotiations came to no effect, as Austria refused to make the concessions necessary, and on May 4, 1915, Italy denounced the Triple Alliance, as far as it affected herself and Austria-Hungary.

War was officially declared against Austria on May 23, 1915, and on the following day active operations began. The course of the war as regards Italy is included in the general narrative in the article WORLD WAR. The campaigns fought were in the most difficult terrain possible. Italian armies fought through 15 furious offensives on the Isonzo and the Piave, inflicting terrible losses on the enemy in each offensive. With the exception of the Great Italian Retreat in the autumn of 1917, and the invasion of the northeast corner of Italy by Austrian and German forces, Italy suffered no serious reverses. See ISONZO, BAT- TLES OF; PIAVE, BATTLES OF. Following the great retreat to the Piave river, the Italian armies under General Diaz reformed and prevented the enemy from crossing the river, except in isolated points. On June 23, they began an offensive along the western bank of the river, and this was continued in a great drive which swept the Austrian troops before them. The movement ended on July 10th, with nearly 35,000 Austrian prisoners and 300,000 Austrian casualties. Operations were carried on so aggressively toward Austria during the succeeding months that on Nov. 3 she was willing to sign an armistice, which amounted to unconditional surrender to Italy. In the operations pre- ITALY ITHACA ceding this, the Austrian armies had strictions, should go to Jugo-Slavia, been utterly shattered by 5 Italian divisions, 3 British, 2 French, one Czecho- Slovak, and the 332d American Infantry Regiment.

Italy took a prominent part in the Peace Conference. Her representatives included Vittorio Orlando, Prime Minis- LEANING TOWER OF PISA ter, and Baron Sonnino, Foreign Minister. There were vexed problems relating to Italy to be solved. These were concerned chiefly with the ultimate disposition of Fiume and Dalmatia, both of which were claimed by Italy and Jugo- Slavia. Italy claimed that both Fiume and Trieste properly belonged to her.

Trieste she received, but Fiume remained the mooted point until November, 1920, when by the so-called Treaty of Rapallo it was agreed between Italy and Jugo- Slavia that Dalmatia, with certain rewhile Fiume should become an independent state. Gabriel D'Annunzio, who had taken possession of Fiume with a body of troops, early in 1919, refused to accept the terms of the treaty, and on December 9, declared Fiume an independent state, and established a socalled "Italian Regency of Quarnero." Forces were sent to compel him to leave the city, and on Dec. 8, following several sharp engagements in which a considerable number of men were killed on both sides, D'Annunzio ceased resistance and retired from Fiume.

The economic conditions following the peace treaty gave rise to many disturbances. There were strikes instigated in many cases by radicals throughout the country, in June, 1920. These, however, gradually subsided and comparative economic peace had been reached at the end of the year.

ITASCA LAKE (i-taskä), in Beltrami and Cass counties, Minn.; first seen by William Morrison, a fur trader, in 1804; was explored by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft in 1832. It is the first considerable gathering of the furthermost streams which form the Mississippi, one of these being in volume entitled to be called the young Mississippi; the lake therefore is justly considered the source of the great river. The so-called "Glazier Lake" of some maps is merely an old bay of it partially settled up, and the claim of William Glazier to have discovered the "true source" has no foundation.