League
a combination or union between two or more persons for the promotion of mutual or common interests, or for the execution of any design in com- Also a treaty, alliance, or confederation between two or more sovereigns or governments for mutual aid and defense. An offensive league or alliance is when two or more states agree to unite in attacking a common enemy; a defensive league is when the contracting parties agree to assist each other in their defense against a common enemy.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS. While this ideal has been in the mind of many modern thinkers on international law and while many statesmen have furthered the idea it first became a matter of practical statesmanship through the influence of President Wilson. In his famous address, Jan. 8, 1918, he gave as the last of his celebrated fourteen bases of the coming general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political and territorial independencies for great and small states alike." Later in the year, at the Independence Day celebration at Mt. Vernon, the President said one of the ends to which the United States entered the war was: "The establishment of an organization of peace which shall make it certain that the combined power of free nations will check every invasion of right and serve to make peace and justice the more secure by affording a definite tribunal of opinion to which all must submit." Finally on Sept. 27, 1918, he again reiterated that the League of Nations would play an important part in the peace settlement, in fact he declared it to be an "indispensable instrumentality" if the coming peace settlement Mercantile A founder mmerce, Chai Society 1914, nce Committee from Ox- Editor of the (1880), of Homer " (1882) to the mad Homer and or union be for the proon interests, or ace, or confedlove sovereigns alaid and deoralliance is ntracting por other in their enemy.
While this of many modfurthered is famous adas the last of of the comsasociation of under specific of affording ical and fergreat an in the year, eclebration a aid one of the States entered LEAGUE OF NATIONS were to be worth while. Five bases for the League he laid down in this address: " First, the impartial justice meted out must involve no discrimination between those to whom we wish to be just and those to whom we do not wish to be just.
It must be a justice that plays no favorites and knows no standard but the equal rights of the peoples concerned; "Second, no special or separate interest of any single nation or any group of nations can be made the basis of any part of the settlement which is not consistent with the common interest of all; "Third, there can be no leagues or alliances or special covenants and understandings within the general and common family of the League of Nations. "Fourth, and more specifically, there can be no special, selfish economic combe no special, selfish economic combinations within the league and no employment of any form of economic boycott or exclusion except as the power of economic penalty by exclusion from the markets of the world may be vested in the League of Nations itself as a means of discipline and control; "Fifth, all international agreements and treaties of every kind must be made known in their entirety to the rest of the world."
While the President thus put himself in the forefront of the movement to esthe forefront of the movement to establish a League of Nations, he was not alone among the statesmen of the world in this position. Prominent among other leaders was General Smuts of the Union of South Africa whose draft of a league was actually made the basis of discussion in the negotiations at Paris.
Viscount Grey and Lord Robert Cecil in England both pronounced in favor of the idea, the latter being appointed by the British Premier to have charge of the "League of Nations Department" of the British Government's staff at the Peace Conference. Premier Clemenceau exhibited no enthusiasm for the idea from the first, although Léon Bourgeois, a supporter of the League, was placed in charge of the matter at the Peace Conference.
After the President had arrived in Paris there was considerable discussion as to whether the terms of peace should not first be settled and then the covenant of the League of Nations be drafted. Most of the European statesmen took this view, but the President was obdurate in demanding that the first business of the Peace Conference should be the drafting of a constitution of a League of Nations. In this he carried his point and on Jan. 18, 1918, at the first session of the Conference it was announced that the first business would be the adoption LEAGUE OF NATIONS of a covenant of a league. On Feb. 14, 1919, just before sailing for the United States to transact necessary business, the President read the Covenant of the League of Nations to the Peace Conference which adopted it. der to promote international co-opera- The preamble is as follows:-"In orsecurity by the acceptance of obligations tion and to secure international peace and not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just and honorable relations between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of conduct among governments, and by the maintenance of justice and scrupulous redealings of organized peoples with one spect for all treaty obligations in the another, the Powers signatory to this League of Nations." covenant adopt this Constitution of the ecutive Council and a permanent Secre- The document then establishes an Extariat to be established at the seat of the League, provides for the arbitration of matters that parties concerned to be proper subjects are considered by the for arbitration, and also provides that nations shall not go to war without a previous resort to the arbitration of the League. In case of any_assault by one of the members of the League against any other member all the nations signatory to the Covenant are to proceed by what means they choose to punish the offender. "Mandates" for the former the executive council, and all treaties German colonies are to be assigned by are to be deposited with the Secretary- General of the League. Perhaps the most important article in the Covenant and certainly the one most discussed was Article X which reads as follows: undertake to respect and preserve as "The high contracting parties shall against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all states members of the League . In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of shall advise upon the means by which such aggression the Executive Council the obligation shall be fulfilled."
This first draft of the Covenant encountered severe criticism especially in the United States, where many Senators held that a distinct recognition of the Monroe Doctrine should have been incorporated in the document: that the League would involve us in many petty wars and that it was placing the sovereignty over Americans in the hands of foreigners. The Japanese demanded an amendment in favor of racial equality, while the French wished a permanent On Feb. 14, for the United essary business, Covenant of the Peace Conferlowa: "In oronalno-operainternational peace and cance of obligations prescription abis relations berm establish- Internaconduct mainpulous rens in the les with one atory to this Constitution of the stablishes an Exrmanent Secreseat of the ation of by the bjects that car without a ation of the ult by one de against ons signaproceed by to punish the the former be assigned by and all treaties with the Secretary- Perhaps the in the Covenant most discussed was follows: g parties shall on the terriang political inembers of the ession r of many the the LEAGUE OF NATIONS international force to protect them from German aggression. The opponents of the League under the leadership of Senator Lodge secured the signatures of thirty-nine of the Senate's members to a document declaring that they would not ratify the Covenant of the League in its present form. Influenced by these criticisms the President returned to Paris and changes were made in the wording of the Constitution of the League, intended to safeguard the Monroe Doctrine, to remove domestic questions from the jurisdiction of the League, to permit nations to withdraw from the League upon two years' notice "providing it had fulfilled its obligations," and to require the decision of the League Council to be unanimous.
This revised draft of the Covenant was adopted by a plenary session of the Peace Council on April 28, 1919, following an explanatory address by President Wilson. The decision was made that the seat of the League was to be Geneva, Switzerland, rather than Brussels which wished the honor. Sir (James) Eric Drummond, private secretary to Arthur J. Balfour, British Foreign Secretary, was named as the first Secretary-General of the League of Nations. Although many of the European statesmen desired the League of Nations Covenant to be entirely apart from the terms of the Peace Treaty, President Wilson again insisted that it be an integral part of the Treaty.
This angered many members of the United States Senate who claimed that the President was attempting to force the Senate to agree to the Covenant whether it approved of its terms or not, the only alternative given it being that of rejecting the entire Peace Treaty and continuing in a state of war with Germany. On July 10, 1919, President Wilson formally sent the Treaty with the Covenant embodied in it to the Senate for its ratification. By reason of the slight majority of the Republicans in that body they were able to organize the Foreign Relations Committee to which the document was referred. Both in the Committee and on the floor of the Senate serious opposition to both Treaty and League appeared and numerous requests were made by the Senators of the President for papers and reports of the Peace Conference. While the President refused most of these requests he finally agreed to meet the entire Foreign Relations Committee at the White House on August 19th and answer such questions as far as he could. The meeting was held and the Chief Executive made known his willingness to agree to such "interpretive reservations" which should LEAGUE OF NATIONS not change in any essential manner the League or the Treaty, but he expressed opposition to any textual amendments or such reservations as would impair the structure of the League.
While these negotiations were proceeding between the executive and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, foreign countries were acting. Great Britain was the first of the great nations to ratify both the League and the Treaty, the resolution becoming law July 31, 1919. France followed by ratification on Aug. 20th, Belgium on Aug. 8th. Spain was among the first of the neutral states to declare their adhesion to the League, taking action to that effect on Aug. 16th. Switzerland agreed to submit the whole matter to a referendum of her people which was done and the League finally accepted, but not without considerable opposition.
Chile was among the first of the American nations to join the League and the indications were that nearly all the South American nations would do so.
These proceedings of other nations did not influence the United States, the one country which was expected to hail the League as the achievement of its ideals.
After an address by Senator Knox of Pennsylvania, Secretary of State under the Taft administration, in which he bitterly denounced both League and Treaty the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on Sept. 10, 1919, made their report recommending 38 textual amendments and four reservations to the Treaty and Covenant. As far as the League was concerned the Committee recommended an amendment giving the United States an equal vote with that of any other nation in the League. This was aimed at Great Britain, which nation had five votes counting those of her selfgoverning colonies. Another amendment would give to the United States the unconditional right of withdrawal from the League; a reservation was suggested by the Committee which would completely invalidate Article X; still another reservation made the United States sole judge of what was a domestic issue and over what matters the League had jurisdiction. President Wilson seeing the hopelessness of the situation in the Senate determined to appeal to the country in a series of speeches and endeavor to arouse public sentiment to bring pressure on the recalcitrant Senators. During September he journeyed to the Pacific Coast making speeches explaining and defending the League. While given a courteous hearing everywhere and an enthusiastic reception by most of his audiences, opin ions differ as to whether the people L France, I Ambascad Conha for Greece, M. Eym Ferrari POR GIUM ready tra cil, so th amorinotus by the L Practically acted was anese, and Basin Con don as the general, w ing months tant decis Co Mang the tance w body if States she orable to however, position t Republican bility of Covenant.
The Le Geneva in 1920.
TRAMT Warwicksh modern er only since waters in born in L In 1885 st sant by th Greece, wh scapes in A the islands at the Ros later year made him trated book ings. Of t his "S (1 (1846): (1851) (1861 Lowed Storie able LEAGUE OF NATIONS showed their sympathy with him in his battle for the League. Certainly the Senate was in no more pliant mood than hitherto. The President returned to Washington a sick man, and for a time in the fall was unable to take any further part in the controversy. The Senate during October abandoned its effort to amend the Covenant and the opposition centered its efforts on securing the adoption of reservations which should be as effective.
These reservations, numbering fourteen and covering the main objections of the opposition to the League, were drawn up by the Foreign Relations Committee and were brought to a vote in the Senate on Nov. 19, 1919, and were defeated by a vote of 55 to 39, the Democrats and the "Irreconcilables" alike voting for their rejection, the first because the reservations as President Wilson had announced completely nullified the League, and the second group because they were opposed to ratification under any conditions. A vote was then taken on unconditional ratification which was defeated by a vote of 53 to 38, whereas an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the entire body was required to obtain a ratification. Even after this first rejection of the League negotiations continued to attempt to secure ratification. More sweeping reservations than the previous fourteen were agreed upon in order to secure the votes of the "Irreconcilables" if possible.
The resolution of ratification with these fifteen reservations was brought to a vote on March 19, 1920, and received 57 votes in its favor to 37 against, thus lacking the necessary two-thirds by seven votes. The Senate, immediately thereafter passed a resolution notifying the President that they refused their consent to the Treaty and the League.
While the United States thus rejected the League, other nations at the same time were announcing their acceptance of it. By the first of January, 1920, Japan and Italy had ratified, thus completing the list of all the great powers on the allied side. Among the neutrals Spain, Argentina, Uruguay, Chile and Persia had responded favorably to the invitation given to join the League. By the terms of the Covenant the time for the League's first meeting had arrived, accordingly President Wilson issued a call for the session to be held in Paris on Jan. 16, 1920. This honor was accorded to the President of the United States because of his efforts for the League and in spite of the fact that his country had not ratified. On the 16th of January the League held its first meeting, there being present nine representatives of the different nations: Léon Bourgeois for LEAR France, Lord Curzon for Great Britain, Ambassador Matsui for Japan, M. da Conha for Brazil, Premier Venizelos for Greece, Ambassador de Leon for Spain, M. Hymans for Belgium, and Signor Ferrari for Italy. Sir Eric Drummond, the Secretary of the League, was also present. Most of the business which was before the body had been already transacted by the Supreme Council, so that comparatively few of the enormous tasks that were to be handled by the League were actually before it.
Practically all the real business transacted was to name the English, Japanese, and Belgian members of the Sarre Basin Commission and to designate London as the next meeting place. This, ip general, was the rule during the succeeding months. The real tasks and important decisions were handled by the Supreme Council of the Allies and only a perfunctory amount of business transacted by the League of Nations Council. Many thought more power and importance would be assigned to this latter body if the fall elections in the United States should return a Senate more favorable to the League. The Republicans, however, made an issue out of their opposition to the Covenant, and the great Republican victory eliminated any possibility of a ratification of the League Covenant.
The League held its second session in Geneva in November and December, 1920.