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Navy (U S See UNITED STATES out)

U. S. (See UNITED STATES, out of the presence of the Ottoman 1922-23.) a NEAR EASTERN QUESTION, term applied to the problems arising Turks in southeastern Europe and the neighboring portions of Asia Minor. In its earlier phases, the Near Eastern Question was chiefly concerned with the NEAR EASTERN QUESTION claims and disputes of European powers among themselves in connection with what was universally believed from the early part of the nineteenth century to be the impending dissolution of Turkey.

In addition to rivalries among the new states re-established in southeastern Europe itself after having been for centuries under Turkish dominion, other European powers set up claims and pretensions to portions of the spoils both of territory and of influence when the Turks should finally be expelled. Above all, Russia under the Czars laid claim to paramount interests in the Balkans as protector of the Christian populations there, while England and France, particularly the former, sought rather to maintain the Turks in Europe than to allow the Russian Empire to be extended to Constantinople. The Crimean War of 1854 forced Russia temporarily to renounce her pretensions, but they were renewed in arms in 1878 and led to the famous Congress of Berlin at which the Powers again thwarted Russia, while Austria and Germany now began to appear as Russia's rivals in Balkan ambitions. The so-called Balkan wars of 1912-13 presented a new phase of the Eastern Question, when Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece first joined in a war against the Sultan and afterwards fought among themselves, Rumania joining Serbia and Greece against Bulgaria. By the treaties of London and Bucharest, signed May and August, 1913, Turkey was confined to Constantinople and the eastern portion of Thrace in Europe, all the remainder of her European territories being divided among the victors. The division, however, was not satisfactory and the resentments and ambitions produced by the whole situation contributed materially materially to the series of events which culminated in the World War in 1914. Turkey's part in that war, ending in her defeat and complete surrender in 1918, led first to the drastic treaty of Sèvres, signed August 10, 1920, a treaty by which Turkish control in Europe was reduced to Constantinople and vicinity - all of Thrace now being ceded to Greece-and by which the important district of Smyrna was also given provisionally to Greek keeping, while Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, the Hedjaz, and all rights and titles in Egypt and other parts of Africa were renounced by the Sultan. To this treaty, however, the so-called Turkish Nationalists refused their assent and waged war against the Greeks with the object of recovering Smyrna and Thrace. In this they were successful, recovering the former with NEAR EASTERN QUESTION all Asia Minor in September, 1922, and reoccupying Thrace the following month in accordance with an armistice signed at Mudania. On November 1, 1922, the Turkish Sultan, Mohammed VI, was deposed by the Turkish National Assembly and Turkey was declared to be a republic. A Nationalist governor assumed control of the civil authority in Constantinople and demands were made that the city be evacuated by the military commands of the Allied Powers which had been stationed there since 1918.

Conference at Lausanne, November 20, 1922-February 4, 1923.

In this situation, a general conference, summoned originally by Great Britain, France, and Italy, met at Lausanne, Switzerland, for the purpose of establishing peace and of reaching new agreements and understandings as demanded by the altered Near Eastern situation.

The United States was invited to participate, but declined to do so except by observers. While the conference broke up (February, 1923) without having signed any final treaty, substantial agreements and concessions had been made on a number of difficult points at issue, and the way was left open for renewed discussions. Among the important matters considered, in addition to boundary and territorial questions, were the freedom of the Straits and of Constantinople, capitulations, "the open door" in Turkey, and questions of racial and religious minorities.

Freedom of the Straits. An agreement on this question was reached between the Turkish representatives and those of all the other powers interested except the United States and Russia, December 20, 1922. It provided for the equal freedom of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorous to the ships of all nations, both merchant ships and warships. A neighboring zone was to be demilitarized and placed under international control.

Provision was made for the security of Constantinople, which was to be returned to Turkey in full possession on the signing of peace. The American observer, Richard Washburn Child, set forth the opinion that the Straits should be completely internationalized, while Russia favored Turkish control, with the fortification of the Straits by Turkey and their closing to all warships except under restrictions.

Capitulations. These having been abrogated by the government of the Sultan in 1914 and declared by the Turkish National Pact to be incompatible with Turkish sovereignty, the Turkish repre- NEAR EASTERN QUESTION sentatives at Lausanne refused to consider their renewal as such. But in order to make Turkish legal procedure more acceptable to foreigners, Turkey consented to employ foreign counsellors in a general redrafting of the Turkish legal code, such counsellors to be also given power to receive and submit complaints of foreigners respecting the administration of the law by Turkish courts. In regard to financial and economic concessions, Turkey refused to consider their renewal without the right of previous revision, claiming that vast grants of privileges had been made by former Turkish administrations under the name of capitulations.

Open Door. The maintenance of this principle in Turkey, against all secret or exclusive agreements in restriction of freedom of commercial opportunity, was urged by Secretary Hughes for the United States and by the American observer, Richard Washburn Child. The Turkish delegates agreed with the principle.

Minorities Question. At the session of December 1, 1922, the Turkish representatives admitted to the conference that the banishment of all the Greeks in Turkey had been decreed by the government at Angora. Over half a million Greeks had already been driven into exile from Asia Minor following the Turkish military victories of August and September, 1922, while 300,000 Thracian Greeks had fled from that province during October as a consequence of the Turkish re-occupation. The Allied representatives and the American observer protested strongly against the Turkish order of banishment, but in the end the conference decided that there should be an exchange of populations, the 500,000 Greeks still remaining in Turkey (outside of Constantinople) to be exchanged for the 420,000 Turks in Greece. It was agreed that the Turks in Western Thrace should be allowed to remain in that province and similarly that the Greeks in Constantinople should be allowed to remain in that city, but only on condition that the Greek Patriarch there should be expelled. On January 10th an agreement was reached that the Patriarch might remain, but was to be deprived of all administative and civil functions. As for the Armenians, the Turks refused to set aside any national home for them. In a lengthy statement the Turkish representatives defended the Turks against all atrocity charges throughout their history, declaring that the Armenians had been the aggressors in every massacre for which Turkey had received the blame and citing the relations of the Jews and NECROLOGY Turks as a proof of the latter's tolerant spirit toward any minority which obeyed the law. The Turks finally consented to give such assurances in regard to the protection of minorities in Turkey as had been given by the new nations of Europe.

A general amnesty was to be proclaimed for all the Christian subjects of Turkey, but the Turks refused to exempt any subjects from the obligations of military service.

NECROLOGY.

Abbott, Lyman, Oct. 22, 1922.

Ballinger, Richard Achilles, June 6, 1922.

Barnard, Edward Emerson, Feb. 6, 1923.

Bell, Alexander Graham, Aug. 1, 1922.

Bertillon, Dr. Jacques, July 4, 1922.

Bulkeley, Morgan Gardiner, Nov. 6, 1922.

Burlingame, Edward Livermore, Nov. 16, 1922.

Butler, Howard Crosby, Aug. 15, 1922.

Clews, Henry, Jan. 31, 1923.

Cochin, Baron Denys, March 24, 1922.

Cockran, William Bourke, March 1, 1923.

Collins, Michael, Aug. 22, 1922.

Constantine I of Greece, Jan. 11, 1923.

Crafts, Wilbur Fisk, Dec. 27, 1922.

Croker, Richard, April 29, 1922.

Davids, Thomas William Rhys, Dec. 27, 1922.

Davison, Henry Pomeroy, May 6, 1922.

Deschanel, Paul Eugène Louis, April 28, 1922.

Djemal Pasha, July 25, 1922.

Dow, Arthur Wesley, Dec. 13, 1922.

Enver Pasha, Aug. 4, 1922.

Esmond, Henry V., April 17, 1922.

Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich von, April 9, 1922.

Fallows, Samuel, Sept. 5, 1922.

Gates, Merrill Edwards, Aug. 11, 1922.

Goucher, Rev. John F., July 19, 1922.

Griffith, Arthur, Aug. 12, 1922.

Gronna, Asle e J., J., May May 4, 4, 1922.

Harland, Marion, (See Terhune).

Harrison, Frederic, Jan. 13, 1923.

Jones, Nellie Grant Sartoris, Aug. 30, 1922.

Knapp, Martin Augustine, Feb. 10, 1923.

Kuroki, Count Tamesada, Feb. 4, 1923.

Mann, James Robert, Nov. 30, 1922.

Maynard, Lieut. Belvin W., Sept. 7, 1922.

Miller, Charles Ransom, July 18, 1922.

Monaco, Prince Albert of, June 26, Montt, Jorge, Oct. 8, 1922.

Nordau, Max Simon, Jan. 22, 1923.

NECROLOGY Northcliffe, Lord, Aug. 14, 1922.

Padgett, Lemuel P., Aug. 2, 1922.

Page, Thomas Nelson, Nov. 1, 1922.

Penfield, Frederic Courtland, June 19, 1922.

Prothero, Sir George, July 11, 1922.

Rathenau, Walter, June 24, 1922.

Reinsch, Paul Samuel, Jan. 24, 1923.

Ribot, Alexandre, Jan. 14, 1923.

Rockefeller, William, June 24, 1922 Roe, Charles Francis, Dec. 1, 1922.

Roentgen, William Conrad von, Feb.

Russell, Lillian (Mrs. Alexander P.

Moore), June 6, 1922. 10, 1923.

Santley, Sir Charles, Sept. 22, 1922.

Sharp, William Graves, Nov. 17, 1922.

Shrady, Henry Merwin, April 12, 1922.

Smith, Rev. William Austin, Sept. 27, 1922.

Solvay, Ernest, May 26, 1922.

Sonnino, Sidney Baron, Nov. 23, 1922.

Spitzka, Dr. Edward Anthony, Sept. 5, 1922.

Storer, Bellamy, Nov. 13, 1922.

Takamine, Jokichi, July 22, 1922.

Tanner, Bishop Benjamin Tucker, Jan. 15, 1923.

Terhune, Mary Virginia (Marion 15, 1923.

Harland), June 3, 1922.

Thoburn, Bishop James Mills, Nov. 28, 1922.

Van Deventer, Sir Louis Jacob, Aug. 27, 1922.

Vaughan, Bernard, Oct. 31, 1922.

Vedder, Elihu, Jan. 29, 1923.

Villiers, Frederic, April 5, 1922.

Wanamaker, John, Dec. 12, 1922.

OLD AGE Watson, Thomas Edward, Sept. 26, Wilson, Sir Henry, June 22, 1922.

Wright, Luke E., Nov. 17, 1922.

Wu Ting-Fang, June 23, 1922.