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Nicholson (SAMUEL D United States Senator)
SAMUEL D., United States Senator from Colorado, died on March 24, 1923. He was born in Prince Edward Island and was for many years identified with important mining interests in California. He was a Republican in politics and was elected to the Senate in 1921.
The NOBEL PRIZE. Only four of the five Nobel Prizes were awarded for 1923, no Peace Prize being awarded. formal presentation was made as customary in December, 1923, at Stockholm, in the presence of King Gustavus of Sweden, his cabinet ministers and foreign diplomats. Some of the latter, including Robert W. Bliss, U. S. Minister to Sweden, received the prizes in place of their nationals to whom they had been awarded. The Literature Prize went to William Butler Yeats, the Irish poetauthor, also well known for his activities on behalf of the Irish Free State and now a member of the Irish Senate. The Physics Prize went to Dr. Robert A.
Millikan, director of the Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics, Pasadena, Cal., and executive head of the California Institute of Technology. This was the fourth time that one of the science Nobel Prizes was awarded to an American scientist. Doctors F. G. Banting and J. J. R. MacLeod of the Physiology Department of the University of Toronto were the joint winners of the Medicine Prize for their work in connection with OPIUM insulin. The Chemistry Prize was won by Professor Friedrich Pregi of the University of Graz, Austria. NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY.
A university campus, one of the largest and best in the country, is being constructed for this university. Nine acres of ground facing Lake Lake Michigan Mi Michigan in the down-town part of Chicago will be utilized for the construction of buildings and campus at a cost of $10,000,000.
This will constitute the down-town division of the university. NORWAY. The commercial and shipping agreement which ended the long tariff war between Norway and Portugal over Norway's prohibition law was ratified April 12, and went into effect on April 16, the day when Norway's prohibition of strong wines ceased to have validity. The Government adopted a strong policy of cutting down expenditures, so as to balance its budget.
The chief industries of shipping and export trade were improving. On November 26, Norway and the United States renewed their treaty of arbitration for the following five years. The majority of the Norwegian Labor party refused to accept the demands laid down by Moscow. The Norwegian and Danish delegates, who met at Christiania to discuss the status of Greenland, drafted an agreement that was to be submitted to the Parliaments of their respective countries.
O OKLAHOMA. The year 1923 was a turbulent one in the political history of the State. Governor Jack Walton early in the year, in an alleged effort to suppress outrages attributed to the Ku Klux Klan, declared martial law and refused to call a special session of the legislature.
The legislature decided that it had the right to meet under the bill of rights under the State Constitution, and undertook to hold a special session in spite of the opposition of the Governor, who had the National Guard on duty to prevent their assembling. Prior to these events Governor Walton had called for a special election to pass on proposed amendments to the State Constitution. Legislature to would allow the State Legislature to assemble on a call by a majority of its members without the assent of the Governor. The Governor attempted to prevent this special election, but it was finally held and the Legislature met.
They at once proceeded to impeach Governor Walton, who refused to resign. The trial was carried in the Senate in November, and resulted in the impeachment of the Governor, who was removed from office after a sensational trial. On five counts, which included receiving bribe, the the Go Governor was acquitted, but he was convicted on eleven counts, including the charge of padding the payroll, suspending the right of the writ of habeas corpus, of attempting to prevent a special State election, and of being generally incompetent. OPIUM. The Council of the League of Nations decided in December, 1923, to call two conferences on the opium traffic.
They will be held at Geneva, Switzerland, in November, 1924. One of the conferences will consider the limitation PALESTINE of the manufacture of the drug to scientific and medical needs. The second conference will consider ways and means for P PALESTINE. The country escaped the general trade depression. Several commercial enterprises were launched during the year, and widespread building activity produced a decrease in unemployment. Bitter feeling still persisted between the Arab and Jewish elements of the population, resulting in sporadic disorders. Arab political activity brought on a crisis, June 12, when all the Arab nominees to the Advisory Council resigned. Recruiting for the British gendarmerie was satisfactory. The Palestine Government arranged for a loan of about $12,000,000 in London. A pronouncement was made in the House of Commons that the Government, while committed to the duty of facilitating a Jewish national homeland in Palestine, did not have as its policy the creation of a Jewish state or government.
PANAMA. The annual report of Governor Morrow of the Panama Canal Zone, made public on November 18, stated that during the fiscal year ending on June 30, 1923, the Panama Canal, its auxiliaries and the Panama Railway together netted a profit of $12,063,880, an increase over the net profits of the preceding year of $2,862,267. The Panama Chamber of Commerce, in opposing the lease or sale of commissaries in the Canal Zone, protested to President Coolidge that this would infringe upon Panama's treaty rights. A contention set up by the Government of Panama that the United States never acquired the territory of the Panama Canal Zone in fee simple was answered by the United States State Department, which pointed to a clause in the Panama treaty which grants to the United States all the rights, power and authority it would possess if it were sovereign of the territory. PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCE.
The fifth Pan-American Conference met at Santiago de Chile in April, 1923. Dr.
Henry P. Fletcher, Ambassador to Belgium, headed the United States delegation. The outstanding accomplishment of the conference was an arbitration treaty negotiated by the United States and sixteen other American nations. The treaty provides that "all controversies arising from any cause what- PENNSYLVANIA a war on opium. A committee was named to prepare plans for these two conferences. ever that cannot be settled by diplomatic channels" shall be referred to a commission of inquiry composed of five members; two nominated by each of the disputants and the fifth selected by those appointees. This body will operate under the rules set forth in the convention signed February, 1923, between the United States and the Central American States.
PASSION PLAYERS. In December, 1923, forty inhabitants of the worldfamous Bavarian mountain famous Bavarian mountain village, Oberammergau, led by Anton Lang, Andreas Lang, and Guido Mayr, who r respectively represent in the Passion Play, the Christ, Peter, and Judas, arrived in the United States. The purpose of their journey was to exhibit in New York and in several other large cities of the country, specimens of their wood carving, pottery, and painting. It was hoped that these exhibitions would not only yield some immediate revenue in the form of admission fees and sales, but would also revive the American interest in the various crafts, for which the inhabitants of Oberammergau are noteworthy. The exhibition in New York was held at the Grand Central Palace and a lifelike reproduction of the main street of Oberammergau with some typical cottages formed its background. In these cottages the wood carvers, potters, metal workers, etchers, and painters were to be seen at their daily tasks as they performed them in their real homes. The venture was supported by a committee of prominent men and women, whose former interest in the Passion Play had induced them to attempt to assist the inhabitants of Oberammergau in their struggle against adverse economic conditions. In March, 1924, before they returned to their native land the Bavarian craftsmen were received by President Coolidge at the White House.
PENNSYLVANIA. The Legislature in April, 1923, passed a new State Prohibition Law by which the system of licensing saloons was abolished. The previous law did not permit the sale of beverages containing over half of one per cent of alcohol, but licensed saloons for the sale of drinks having a less PEONAGE alcoholic content. The bill was signed by Governor Pinchot. The Legislature also passed a bonus enabling bill which provides for a soldiers' bonus for World War veterans. The bonus is made subject to the approval by popular vote of a $35,000,000 bond issue. This measure was signed by Governor Pinchot.
PEONAGE. The investigation of the peonage system in Florida, which permits that convict laborers may be flogged by "whipping bosses," revealed a deplorable condition of brutality in the turpentine camps. The system whereby convicts are delivered under contract to these camps at $20 a head profit to the sheriff sending them there, was condemned by the State Legislature, which by a vote of 31 to 1 abolished such labor contracts with private concerns. "PEPPO." It is reported that the "secret chemical" rumored during the World War to have been administered to German soldiers to give them more than normal. energy, was sodium dihydrogen phosphate. This was administered in the form of a drink to the shock troops as they entered a battle, or during long marches. It is said by scientists that this stimulant has the advantage over alcohol and alkaloids in being a natural factor in bodily processes. It is said to be nonintoxicating and nonhabit forming.
PERMANENT COURT OF INTER- NATIONAL JUSTICE. (See WORLD COURT.) PERSIA. A new Ministry was set up at Teheran on February 15, 1923, with Mustanfi-ul-Mumalik as Premier.
This endured until it was superseded by a new government on October 25, headed by Sardar Sepah. Announcement was made on December 26, that a concession for oil exploitation in four of the five northern provinces had been granted to the Sinclair group. The resources of the country were but scantily developed.
Wheat crops were unusually good, but rotted in the fields because of lack of transportation. Fuel for the same reason cost $35 a ton. The great economic needs of the country are a reorganization of finances and a system of good od roads. Earthquakes, destroying several villages with much loss of life, occurred in 1923.
PERU. The general business outlook was greatly improved, as was shown by the substantial rise in value of the Peruvian pound. The cotton and sugar industries pulled through the crisis provoked by the February strikes without PHILIPPINES losses. The Senate and Chamber of Deputies voted to amend the Constitution so as to permit the reelection of a president, thus making President Leguia eligible for reelection in 1924. Peru agreed to submit the Tacna-Arica dispute with Chile to United States arbitration. The PETROLEUM, ORIGIN OF. origin of coal has been a well-established fact for many years. Much less is known regarding the origin of oil. One of the leading authorities on this subject, Dr.
John M. Macfarlane, Professor Emeritus of Botany at the University of Pennsylvania, who has devoted the last fifty years to the study of the origin of oil, has advanced the theory that oil is the product of buried beds of organic matter derived from fish. He believes that the origin of oil can be traced to volcanic disturb disturbances through which in early geological times the water and land surface of the earth had been upheaved, and immense quantities of fish had been killed. His contentions are supported by the fact that extensive zones of fish remains have been found throughout the southern hemisphere in the same rock formations which contain rich bituminous oil deposits, and that seismic disturbances, especially if occurring near the sea, frequently develop deposits of dead fish for the production of oil. That oil is found frequently in locations which do not support the contention is explained by the fact that oil is known to migrate for long distances through porous sandstone and similar rock formations. That crude oil is wholly animal in origin has been proved to be a fact. From his investigations, Dr. Macfarlane draws two important conclusions. First, that there is no danger of the exhaustion of the world's supply of oil; second, that the knowledge of the origin and location of fish deposits will enable men to discover new oil deposits and to produce, more cheaply than ever, oil for commercial use.
PHILIPPINES. The movement for the independence of the Philippines was aggressively carried on during 1923. This, combined with the friction between Governor General Wood and Filipino politicians kept this dependency much in the public eye during the year. The chief advocates for independence are Manuel Quezon and Sergio Osmena, who are said to dictate politics in the Philippines.
Under Governor General Harrison (1913- 1921) the Filipinos were allowed great latitude in self-government. Conditions resulted which induced President Harding to appoint General Wood Governor- PHONOFILM General, with the task of examining and reporting on conditions. Trouble soon developed between General Wood and the local politicians. It was claimed by these officials that General Wood, by arbitrary methods, had caused great financial and economic hardship in the islands. The incident of the secret service agent who was accused of fraud and was afterward acquitted and reinstated by Governor General Wood was followed by the resignation of the Cabinet or Council of State in July, 1923. The Philippine Legislature passed a resolution declaring this a national issue and demanded the recall of General Wood, declaring that the islands should have immediate independence. General Wood received the support of the Government in his action. After an elaborate investigation into conditions, he reported that the Philippines were not at the present time prepared for self-government. A delegation headed by Quezon and Osmena visited the United States and placed before the President their grievances and a demand for independence.
PHONOFILM, a motion-picture film on which are recorded and from which are reproduced both sound and pictures simultaneously. It was invented by Dr.
Lee De Forest. It was successfully demonstrated before the New York Electrical Society, in April, 1923. It was also exhibited in several moving picture theatres in New York. The picture representation of the sound waves is found on a narrow strip at one side of the picture film.
PIUS X. In April, 1923, in accordance with the request of twenty-eight cardinals, Pope Pius XI. began preparations for the beatification and canonization of his predecessor, Pope Pius X.
So-called postulators were appointed to prove that Pius X. pe performed the three theological virtues, faith, hope and charity, and the four cardinal virtues, prudence, justice, courage and temperance.
PLANETOID. A new planetoid or small planet was discovered at the United States Naval Observatory in February, 1923. It is situated in the About 1,000 constellation of Orion. planetoids have thus far been discovered.
PNEUMONIA. It has been found that relief in acute cases of pneumonia can be obtained by passing a highfrequency alternating electric current through the lungs. Successful experiments were tried in March, 1923, at St.
Mary's Hospital, Hoboken, N. J. The PORTO RICO method has been introduced by Dr.
Harry E. Stewart of Yale University at the United States Marine Hospital, Marine Hospita Staten Island, N. Y. Still another adanother advance in the treatment of pneumonia was the discovery of the anti -pneumococcus serum developed at the Rockefeller Institute Hospital, N. Y., which shows almost complete effectiveness in the treatment of lobar pneumonia. Of 221 cases treated in the hospitals since 1914, there have been about twenty-four deaths and six of these were the result of earlier complications.
POLAND. The visit of King Ferdinand and Queen Marie of Rumania to Poland in June was an impressive ceremonial occasion, and was looked upon as foreshadowing a Polish-Rumanian alliance. The tension of the Memel situation (see MEMEL), the unrest in Silesia and the Vilna neutral zone question produced political unrest. This was increased by the heavy financial burden of the state caused by the swift decline of the Polish mark. Economies were inaugurated to ameliorate conditions. The Government reduced the civil service by discharging 40,000 employees. The President's expenditure, at his own volition , was reduced 40 per cent. The most cent. serious obstacle to economy was the heavy outlay on the army, entailed not only by the terms of the French alliance, French alliance , but by the feeling of the Poles that the position of their country between Germany and Russia made it imperative.
PORTER, GENE STRATTON (Mrs.) (1868-), an American author, born in Wabash County, Ind. She began as a writer of natural history subjects, but poplater wrote fiction which was widely popwhich was widely ular. Her books include "A Girl of the Limberlost" 1909; "Laddie" 1913; "Michael O'Halloran" 1915; "A Daughter of the Land" 1918; "Her Father's Daughter" 1921 and "White Flag" in 1923. Mrs. Porter's books have attained a remarkable sale in the United States and England.
PORTO RICO. A new ruling in the War Department made in March permitted the enforcement of the Volstead Act in Porto Rico. It was held by opponents of the law that since no attempt was made to enforce the law in the Philippines, it should not be attempted to enforce the law in Porto Rico .
It was pointed out, however, that while the Filipinos were not citizens of the United States, the Porto Ricans had been awarded citizenship. Following the resignation of E. Mont Reily as Governor, Horace M. Towner, former Repre- PORTUGAL sentative from Iowa in Congress, was appointed to the office by President Harding and assumed his duties on April 6. Although the movement for military independence continued to be agitated during the year, the political history of the island was without particular event in 1923.
PORTUGAL. Manuel Texeira Gomez, former Portuguese Minister to Great Britain was inaugurated President of Portugal on October 5. The harvests for the year were good and were expected to have a beneficial effect in stabilizing the currency. Senhor Alvaro de Castro, who became Prime Minister December 13, inaugurated a régime of economy by abolishing 2,500 official posts. A labor uprising in Lisbon, on December 10, was promptly suppressed.
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. A proposal was made to the Presbyterian Church by the Congregationalists to combine the two denominations. Although the proposal was received cordially, a number of serious obstacles are in its way.
PROHIBITION five are required of each student every term. Of these courses two must be in the same department. The reduction in the number of courses is compensated for by the students' independent work in the field of his major study. This is declared to be the most important development at Princeton since the introduction of the preceptorial system by Woodrow Wilson during his term as president of the university.
PROHIBITION. The attempted enforcement of the National Prohibition Act proved quite as vexatious in 1923 as in the previous years. On April 30, the United States Supreme Court handed down a decision declaring that the Eighteenth Amendment and the prohibition act applied to all merchant vessels, both domestic and foreign when within the territorial waters of the United States.
The seizure of several vessels beyond the three-mile limit and the ruling that foreign vessels could not bring liquor into the United States even under seal, gave rise to much diplomatic protest Negotiations between the United States and Great Britain resulted in a treaty permitting the United States to search British vessels within the 12-mile limit on condition from various countries. The Presbyterian Church is a national organization and has a Creed, while the Congregational church life is centered in the local church and it has no Creed. Dr. J. Ross Stevenson, presi- dent of the Princeton Theological Seminary, was made chairman of a committee to whom this proposal was referred. The annual budget of the Presbyterian Church for 1924 reaches the figure of $17,000,000, an increase of $2,000,000, of which $7,000,000 will be spent on foreign missions. The National Presbyterian Conference met at Cleveland, Ohio, and expressed complete confidence in the officials of the various church boards, some of these officials, especially the secretaries of the Board of Foreign Mission, having been attacked at various times because it was claimed that they permitted unorthodox Presbyterians to serve as missionaries. The Foreign Mission Board refuted these claims in a statement in which it declared that its missionaries were, as far as could be ascertained, orthodox. The conference also went on record as indorsing the Prohibition Laws and expressed belief "in the Gospel of the Son of God as the one hope of deliverance from the greed, lust and anarchy with which a resurgent paganism threatens to engulf civilization."
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY. The that British owned vessels might bring liquor as ship's stores into the United States territorial waters. This act was designed to prevent the smuggling of vast quantities of liquor from West India and other British possessions. thirty States Governors of thirty States met in Indianapolis, in October, 1923, to confer in relation to the enforcement of the prohibition laws. Strict enforcement of the law was urged by Governor Sweet of Colorado, Governor Pinchot of Pennsylvania, and the Governors of Utah, Maine and other States. The opposition was led by Governors Parker of Louisiana, Silzer of New Jersey, and Blaine of Wisconsin. The Governors finally drafted and signed a memorial calling for observation of the law, adherence to the Constitution and cooperation between the State executives and the Federal Government in enforcing the law relating to prohibition.
Following this conference, the Governors met the President in Washington. The latter made a speech advocating cooperation in preventing immigrant and liquor smuggling and in enforcing prohibition.
The New York Legislature repealed the Mullan-Gage Law and left the State without any prohibition enforcement course of study at Princeton was measure. Enforcement of the law was changed in accordance with the ideas of President Hibben. Beginning with the autumn of 1923, four courses instead of thus left practically in the hands of the Federal authorities. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1923, there were PROTESTANT CHURCH begun in the Federal Courts 49,021 prosecutions, carried on against breach of the prohibition act, and 49,730 criminal cases and 2,760 civil cases were disposed of. In the criminal cases 34,067 were convictions. The fines collected amounted to $5,832,389 in the criminal cases, and judgments aggregating $170,- 298 were secured in the civil cases. At the close of the year there were pending 22,052 criminal and 4,064 civil cases.
President Coolidge, in his first message to Congress in D in December, 1923, urged urged the strict enforcement of the prohibition law.
PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH. As in many of the Protestant denominations in the United States, conflicts and discussions prevailed during 1923 in the Protestant Episcopal Church, in respect to the beliefs of this denomination. One result of these controversies was a very definite declaration of belief, made by the bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States at one of their meetings held in Dallas, Texas, in November, 1923. In this de- RADIO ACTIVITY caration the bishops go clearly on record as standing squarely on the tenets contained in the Apostles' Creed. This, of course, affirms that Jesus Christ was born of the Virgin Mary, that he descended into hell, that he arose (bodily) from the dead and now "He sitteth on the right hand of God." The bishops declared that belief in these statements had been, is, and shall be required of all those who desire ba baptism m or ordination in the Protestant Episcopal Church. It is obligatory y upon each deacon, bishop, and priest to teach these facts concerning Jesus Christ. This declaration was unanimous, none of the bishops in attendance dissenting. The report was prepared by five bishops, including those of Vermont, North Carolina, Tennessee, Wisconsin and New York.
R RADCLIFFE COLLEGE. Ada Louise Comstock, dean of Smith College, was elected in March, 1923, president of Radcliffe to succeed Dean Le Baron R. Briggs of Harvard. Miss Comstock was the first dean of women at the University of Minnesota, and also the first dean of Smith College. With her election as president, Radcliffe has for the first time a full-time president.
RADICALISM. In a series of trials conducted in Michigan against radical leaders for offenses against the State Criminal Syndicalism Law William Z.
Foster, Charles E. Ruthenberg and other officials of the party were put on trial. in the case of Foster the jury disagreed.
Ruthenberg Samuel PROTONS. Units of positive electricity in the nucleus of an atom. Such protons as are not balanced by negative units, or electrons, in the nucleus, are balanced by the number of electrons in motion about the nucleus. following a radio conference called by Secretary Hoover. By this plan the country is divided into five zones. First, New England and the Middle States; second, the Middle West; third, the South; fourth, the prairie and mountain States; fifth, the Pacific States. To the high power long-distance transmitting stations in each zone ten definite wave lengths were assigned and broadcasters are compelled to adhere to these under penalty. None of these wave lengths goes above 600 meters. The Department of Commerce greatly enlarged its forces during the year in order to divide the country into nine inspection districts and to check wave lengths in every station. convicted. was Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor, attacked the attempted operations of radicals in the Federation. In a speech before the United Cloth Hat and Cap Makers of America, on May 1, he warned members of the Federation against men of the William Z. Foster type and of their efforts "to bore from within the Federation by the organization of internal cliques, such as the so-called Trade Union Educational League."
RADIO. A new schedule of wave lengths went into effect on May 15, 1923, RADIO ACTIVITY. The development of a theory that radio activity is a property of all matter, and not merely of the thirty-five elements now called radioactive, was carried forward by Dr. Robert A. Millikan in 1923. Dr. Millikan believes that practically all substances in varying degree throw off particles and undergo gradual transformation into other substances. Dr. Millikan sent up in Kelly Field, Texas, kites to which were attached automatic machines. These flew sometimes as high as ten miles and detected rays more powerful than the X- RADIO PICTURES rays or the gamma rays of radium.
These rays clearly did not come from the sun, because they were active day and night. It was evident that they came from space, and in Dr. Millikan's opinion may be the exciting cause in all radioactivity. 148 RECONSTRUCTION IN FRANCE RADIO PICTURES. In November, 1923, the Radio Corporation of America announced the successful transmission by wireless of a photograph from New York to Warsaw, Poland, and back again, a total distance of 9,000 miles. The inventor of the process is E. F. W. Alexanderson. The photograph transmitted was that of Major General James G.
Harbord, president of the Radio Corporation, and the reproduction was perfect , carried out in New York only, because though the reproducing process could be the necessary equipment had not yet been installed in Warsaw. Translation of every variation of light and shade in a photograph into punctures on a ticker tape causes the waves to assume a corresponding pattern when the punctured tape is drawn through a transmitter. A magnet, moved by the waves at the receiving end, controls either a beam of light acting on a photographic plate or a drawing instrument. Eventually the invention will make possible quick transmission of photographs for newspaper use, or identification, verification of signatures, etc.
RAILWAYS. In the latter part of 1923 the railways of the country were faced with a number of serious problems.
Trainmen and conductors on the one hand were asking a 12 per cent increase in wages and the farmers and other large groups were demanding a lowering of freight rates. A considerable demand also had sprung up for the repeal of the Esch-Cummins Railroad Act, and it seemed also likely that other railroad employees besides the conductors and trainmen, would make demands for wage increases, especially the engineers and firemen. Based on the total expenditures for wages to these four groups of employees during the preceding six months a 12 per cent increase would mean an additional annual expenditure of between $80,000,000 and $90,000,000. In his message to the 'ongress, President Coolidge, on December 6, touched upon various of these problems. Among other things he said: "The law requires that railroad rates should be just and reasonable.
Unless the Government adheres to the rule of making a rate that will yield a fair return, it must abandon rate making altogether...." In regard to the Railway Labor Board he said that "it has been a great help, but is not altogether satisfactory to the public, the employees, or the companies. If a substantial agreement can be reached among the groups interested, there should be no hesitancy in enacting such agreement into law. If it is not reached, the Labor Board may very well be left for the present to protect the public welfare." He also touched upon the problem of railroad consolidation, saying that "additional legislation is needed giving authority for consolidation, both regional and route, always subject to the approval mission.. Consolidation appears to al of the Interstate Commerce Combe the only feasible method for the maintenance of an adequate system of transportation with an opportunity to adjust freight rates as to meet such temporary conditions as now prevail in some agricultural sections."
RECONSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.
In October, 1923, the Minister of the Liberated Regions, a member of the French Cabinet, issued an official report giving detailed information concerning the progress of reconstruction work in the ten departments which had been invaded and devastated by the German armies during the World War. Previous to the outbreak of the war the population of the district involved amounted to 4,690,000. At the time of the armistice it had been reduced to 2,075,000. By July, 1923, sufficient repatriation had occurred to increase the population again to 4,207,000. Of the houses in existence in 1914 over 56 per cent were destroyed or badly damaged as the result of the German invasion. By 1922, 335,479 houses had been repaired and 140,299 temporary dwellings had been erected.
The number of buildings repaired, by July, 1923, had been increased to 430,- 864, which permitted the pulling down of 4,299 of the temporary buildings. A total of 21,556 new houses had been built, Of the total devasted area of 8,242,390 acres, 7,746,555 acres had been restored by July 1, 1923. At the beginning of the war the total live stock in the devastated area, including sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, mules, horses, and cattle, was figured at 2,618,135 head. Of these the Germans were charged with having taken 2,418,758. By July 1, 1923 there had again been assembled in this district 1,431,402 head. 7,771 factories had been rebuilt or repaired and all of these were working, the personnel employed being approximately 71 per cent of the prewar number. In 1914 there were 290 mine pits in existence, all of which RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES were destroyed in the war. At the time the report was made 205 of these were again being operated. The total length of coal galleries destroyed or badly damaged was given as 1,903 miles, of which 822 miles had been rebuilt and were again in use. In 1913 the coal production amounted to 1,515,750 metric tons; 951,103 metric tons or 62 per cent of the pre-war figure was given as the production for 1923. Of the 7,395 schools in existence before the war, 7,178 were again in operation in 1923, and of approximately 200 hospitals in existence in 1914, 193 had been reopened. The number of charitable institutions which in 1914 was 2,834 had increased by 1923 to 2,894. All of the principal roads and railways had been repaired, the repair or rebuilding involving 35,397 miles of roads and 1,588 miles of railway. miles of rail A number of canals also had been repaired and made navigable again .
The total amount of money expended by the French Government in relieving refugees and in giving temporary assistance to the returned population , etc., was 1,181,199,567 francs, or about $70,- 000,000. Claims for damages and indemnification to the number of 2,998,- 795, of a value of 118,551,796,000 francs or over $7,000,000,000 were made. Of made.
Of these 90 per cent had been investigated and over 45,000,000,000 francs or about $2,664,000,000 had been paid out on account of recognized claims. RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES.
Each of four large Protestant denominations in the United States- Baptists , Episcopalians, Methodists, and Presbyterians-were faced during 1923 with intensified disputes of a controversial nature. Within each of these denominations there developed two distinct groups, the Fundamentalists and the Modernists.
In the Presbyterian Church the Fundamentalists more or less concentrated their attack on Dr. Fosdick, a Baptist clergyman, who preaches regularly in the First Presbyterian Church in New York City. The attack against Dr. Fosdick was led by Dr. Maitland Alexander of Pittsburgh, one of the most influential Presbyterian clergymen and President of the Board of Directors of Princeton Theological Seminary. In the Episcopal Church (q.v.) the dispute found expression in a reaffirmation of the Episcopal Creed on the part of the House of Bishops. At the same time the rector of a church in Fort Worth, Texas, was accused of heresy and advised that he would be summoned for trial. The Modernists, however, under the leadership of Dr. Worcester of Boston and Dr. RUHR AND REPARATIONS Leighton Parks of New York, immediately denounced the attempt of the bishops, and took steps to assist the Fort Worth clergyman in his defense.
Dr. Leighton Parks also gave expression to his Modernist attitude in a sermon delivered in the latter part of December. This sermon, although of a controversial nature, apparently received the assent of his vestry and majority of his congregation. Though giving expression to many Modernist beliefs, Dr. Parks apparently did not personally deny the virgin birth and it was not believed that his sermon would result in any steps being taken against him by his bishop , the Rt. Rev. William T. Manning. The latter, one of the most influential of the Fundamentalists in the Episcopal Church, brought about a temporary truce by enjoining all clergy of his diocese to refrain from controversy during the Christmas season. In New York City the controversy came to a head also between Dr. Manning and Dr. Wm.
N. Guthrie, rector of St. Marks -in-the- Bouwerie, whose program of dances and "paganism" in worship incurred the displeasure of the bishop. Although both Dr. Guthrie and his vestry were called before the bishop, and although letters and statements were exchanged between them, no final or definite action was taken by Bishop Manning.
RHEUMATISM. A serum which was used experimentally in 5,000 cases of rheumatism at the New York University Medical School at Bellevue Hospital , alleviated the malady in many cases , according to reports made in June, 1923.
RHINELAND (See GERMANY.) RUBBER, SYNTHETIC. Improvements in the making of artificial rubber were announced by a scientist in Germany in July, 1923. Synthetic rubber has been successfully made for several years, but the processes have not been commercially practicable. It is claimed that by the new method the employment of uranium salt used in onnection with in connection with sunlight produces an effect similar to that of ultra-violet rays. The action of these rays on vinyl chloride made from acetylene results in caoutchouc chloride which can easily be converted into rubber. The American Institute for the Advancement of Science has appointed a special committee on photo synthesis to study the methods of utilizing the constructive power of sunlight. In RUHR AND REPARATIONS.
January, 1923, owing to the failure of the Germans to fulfill certain conditions RUMANIA of the Versailles Treaty, France occupied with a large force the Ruhr district in order to assure the execution of the schedules and payments advised by the Reparations Commission. A French army, headed by General Degoutte, advanced into the Ruhr and Germany at once recalled her ambassador from Paris. By January 17, there were 100,000 French troops in the Ruhr with headquarters at Düsseldorf. On the following day General Degoutte issued an order authorizing the seizure of customs receipts, State forests and coal taxes. German officials and managers of coal mines were arrested for failure to yield tax returns and coal to the French Government. The Reparations Commission on January 26, declared Germany in default in all reparations to France and Belgium. French occupation of the Ruhr continued throughout the year, and German opposition and refusal to make payments continued under the guise of passive resistance, until September 10, when Germany surrendered its position and asked for an exchange of ideas with the French Government. Great Britain refused to join with France in its aggressive action and tacitly opposed the Ruhr occupation.
Two notes were issued making plain the position of Great Britain and showing showing the efforts that had been made to bring about an understanding with France in regard to the Ruhr. During the passive resistance period over 180,000 persons were deported from the Ruhr and over 100 killed. Negotiations between France and Germany for rehabilitation of the Ruhr were broken off by Hugo Stinnes of the German industrial group, which refused to permit the French alone to direct disposition of the Ruhr products.
An agreement was made, however, in December, between Germany and the Franco-Belgian administrators for the opening of the Ruhr railway. The French troops were removed from the cities to rural barracks and 85 per cent of the coal miners signed for work with the Franco-Belgian administrators.
RUMANIA. In April, King Ferdinand accepted the resignation of Prime Minister Bratiano, who had held the position of Prime Minister since January, 1922. A Fascisti movement came into existence during the year. It was reported that 40,000 students of the universities had been enrolled in a "life or death struggle against the Jews."
A new constitution passed by parliament in March, 1923, was published in June.
It provides for the abolition of capital punishment except where a state of martial law has been proclaimed. Class RUSSIA distinction and the use of titles are abolished. Freedom of assembly and education is assured. Provision is made for free schools. The Greek Orthodox Church is made the state religion, but full liberty of conscience is expressly confirmed.
RUSSIA. While the Russian Goverment continued to function during 1923 under its avowedly communistic principles, there was a gradual reversion to capitalistic methods.
The most important political event during the year was the adoption of a new Federal constituadoption tion which was approved on July 4, 1923, by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and was ratified by the All- Russian Congress of Soviets in December. The Soviet republics associated under the constitution includes Siberia and the Far-Eastern Republic, the Ukraine, White Russia, Russia proper, and the Trans-Caucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, which includes Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. Uniform citizenship is established by the constitution, but there are no electoral qualifications and no provisions for a direct vote. The supreme power rests in a Congress called the Central Executive Committee of the Union, which consists of two houses, a Federal Council of 371 members and a Council of Nationalities. The first body is elected by the Federal Congress of Soviets and the latter by the Provincial Soviets. The operation of political responsibility in the various states is complicated, but in general the supreme power is retained in the Central Executive Committee. There is established a Supreme Court modeled after that of the United States. The Soviet Government, according to the statement of its finance department in July, 1923, expected to meet 88 per cent of its expenditures with revenue. The Government endeavored, during the year, to establish a new banknote currency called chervonets, with the unit value equivalent to ten gold rubles, based on gold and securities in the Soviet State Bank. The paper ruble was of practically no value in 1923.
Following a trial by the Supreme Court, Archbishop Zepliak and Vicar General Constantin Butchkavitch, heads of the Roman Catholic Church in Russia, together with thirteen other priests, were sentenced to death and various terms of imprisonment for treason in declining to obey the orders of the Soviet Government. The Vicar General was executed on April 3, but the death sentence of the Archbishop was commuted to ten years imprisonment. Roman Catholics and