Utilitarianism
that theory of only ultimate end to be devised and sought after-not necessarily the happihuman race as a totality, and "even as ness of the individual, but that of the far as possible of the sentient creaphrase "the greatest number." With Jeremy Bentham, the inventor of greatest number," as the end of all true the term the "greatest happiness of the term the "grea "greatest happiness of the moral action, Utilitarianism takes its "has placed mankind under the governmore modern shape . "Nature," he said, ment of two sovereign masters, Pain and Pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do." In J. S. Mill Utilassumes its present, which may be safely said to be its highest, form. There, the happiness of the race is announced as an end to be pursued by the individual, even though he should be obliged to renounce his own in its attainment. A place is found for the martyr's effort, but that effort must be in accordance with the great principle of Utilitarianism , or it is worse than useless. Moreover , happiness is here no low quality as well as quantity in pleasures, or degrading conception , for there is and a lower pleasure must yield to a higher-the senses to the intellect, the body to the mind. Those who have had experienced of both may be taken as judges of the question. They have unithe palm to the higher pleasures, pleasures, and from their decision "I apcan be no appeal.". By of the individual is to be so developed careful moral education the conscience that its force in the direction of right action will be all-powerful. plausibility, and that it can urge a great That Utilitarianism is a theory of great from the preceding historical sketch. It deal in support of its position, is evident evident is, so to speak, a self-contained theory; it does not require to go beyond the ob- 1 UTOPIA vious facts of existence to support its claims; it is plain, simple, and direct; it affords an easy and safe rule for the solution of all disputed questions of morals; and it is in obvious agreement with a vast number of the most patent facts of life. Many arguments have been employed against Utilitarianism.
It has been urged: (1) That our powers have various ends, how then can happiness be the end of them all? (2) That all actions producing happiness are not regarded as moral actions. All actions producing pain are not wrong actions. (3) That pain may be used as a means to good, but we must not do evil that good may come of it. (4) That we cannot always calculate beforehand whether the effects of an action will be good or bad. Human life is too complex, and the knowledge an individual has of it is too small to allow him to judge with perfect certainty. Besides, men will take different views of such questions, and thus the moral standard will at best be but a fluctuating one. These objections have been more or less effectively met by the advocates of Utilitarianism, but the gravest objection to the doctrine is (5) that it has no proper theory of dutythe word "right" has no deep true meaning in the system.