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IX.-XIII., The Bernese Oberland (Fisher Unwin), 1890—1909; Die Hochtourist in den Ostalpen, Purtscheller und Hess (Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig und Wien); A Guide to Zermatt and the Matterhorn, Ed. Whymper (Murray), 1897, in progress; The Matterhorn, Guido Rey, translated by J. E. C. Eaton (Unwin), 1907; Chamounix and the Range of Mont Blanc, Ed. Whymper. (Murray), 1896, in progress; Guida delle Alpi Occidentali, Bobba e Vaccaroni (Turin), 1896; Guida alle Alpi Centrali Italiane, E. Brusoni (E. Brusoni, Domodossola), 1892; Les Grandes Ascensiones des Fyrénées, H. Russell-Killough (Paris), 1866; Cent Ans aux Pyrénées, H. Beraldi (Paris), 1900-4; Den Norske Turistforening's Aarbog (Christiania); The Climbs on Llivedd, J. M. A. Thomson and A. W. Andrews (Arnold), 1909; Mountaineering, All England Series, C. Wilson (Bell), 1893; Mountain Climbing, The Out-of-Doors Library, E. L. Wilson and Others (Kegan Paul), 1897; Mountaineering, Badminton Library, C. T.

Dent (Longmans), 1900; The Complete Mountaineer, G. D. Abraham (Methuen), 1908; The Pioneers of the Alps, C. D. Cunningham and W. de W. Abney (Sampson Low), 1887; The Early Mountaineers, F. Gribble (Fisher Unwin), 1899; Hints and Notes, Practical and Scientific, for Travellers in the Alps, J. Ball (Longmans), 1899; Above the Snow Line, C. Dent (Longmans), 1885; Ueber Eis und Schnee, G. L. Studer (Bern), 1896-99; Alpine Ascents and Adventures, H. S.

Wilson (Sampson Low), 1870; The Alps in Nature and History, W. A. B. Coolidge (Methuen), 1908; Wanderings Among the High Alps, A. Wills (Bentley), 1858; The High Alps without Guides, A. G. Girdlestone (Longmans), 1870; Histoire du Mont Blanc, Dr. Anes (Paris), 1878; The Ascent of the Matterhorn, E. Whymper (Murray), 1880; Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen, E. Richter (Berlin), 1893-94; The Playground of Europe, Leslie Stephen (Longmans), 1894; L'Argentière et ses Ascensionistes, M. J. de Kersain Gilly (Nice), 1896; The Western Alps, J. Ball (Longmans), 1898; Les Alpes Françaises, Dr.

Anes (Grenoble), 1884; Hours of Exercise in the Alps, J. Tyndall (Longmans), 1899; Travels through the Alps, J. D. Forbes (Black), 1900; The Alps in 1864, A. W. Moore (Douglas, Edinburgh), 1902; The Alps, Sir M. Conway (Black), 1904; The Alps from End to End, Sir M. Conway (Constable), 1900; The Glaciers of the Alps, J.

Tyndall (Longmans), 1896 (Dent), 1906; Scrambles among the Alps in the Years 1860-69, E. [MOUNTAINEERING millan), 1890; Climbs and Exploration in the Canadian Rockies, H. E. M. Stutfield and J. N.

Collier (Longmans), 1903; In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies, J. Outram (Macmillan), 1906; Mountaineering in Colorado, F. H. Chaplin (Appalachian Mountain Club, Boston), 1889; Mountain Exploration, E. S. Balch, Bulletin of the Geographical Club of Philadelphia, Vol. I., No. 1 (published by Club), 1895; Travels among the Great Andes of the Equator, E. Whymper (Murray), 1892; Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego, Sir M. Conway (Cassell), 1902; The High Andes of Ecuador, &c., Hans Meyer (Williams and Norgate), 1908; The High Alps of New Zealand, W. S. Green (Macmillan), 1883; With Axe and Rope in the New Zealand Alps, G. E. Mannering (Longmans), 1891; Climbs in the New Zealand Alps, E. A. Fitzgerald (Unwin), 1896; Pioneer-Work in the Alps of New Zealand, A. P. Harper (Unwin), 1896; Mountain Adventures at Home and Abroad, George D. Abraham (Methuen), 1910; Swiss Mountain Climbs, George D. Abraham (Mills and Boon), 1911.

CAVE EXPLORATION.-As the sport of cave exploration and the descent of potholes is a comparatively new one, and as little is known about it in England outside those districts where it is practised, a few words on its evolution are necessary to the understanding of its methods.

Whymper (Nelson), 1908; My Climbs in the Alps limestone by the carbonic acid in rainand Caucasus, A. F. Mummery (Unwin), 1909; From the Alps to the Andes, Mathias Zurbriggen (Unwin), 1899; Scrambles in the Eastern Graians, 1878-97, G. Yeld (Unwin), 1900; Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada, C. King (Unwin), 1903; Wanderungen in den Alpen Dolomiten, Th.

Wundt (Mitscher, Berlin), 1893; Dolomite Strongholds, J. S. Davies (Bell), 1894; Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolomites, Leone Sinigaglia, translated by Mary A. Vialls (Unwin), 1896; The Frosty Caucasus, F. C. Grove (Longmans), 1875; Travels in the Central Caucasus and Basan, D. W. Freshfield (Longmans), 1896; The Exploration of the Caucasus, D. W. Freshfield (Arnold), 1902; New Climbs in Norway, E. C.

Oppenheim (Unwin), 1898; Norway, the Northern Playground, W. C. Slingsby (Douglas, Edinburgh), 1904; Mountaineering in the Land of the Midnight Sun, Mrs. A. le Blond (Unwin), 1908; The North-West Peninsula of Iceland, C. W.

Shepherd (Longmans), 1867; Climbing in the British Islands, W. P. Haskett-Smith and H. C.

Hart (Longmans), 1894-95; Rock-Climbing in the English Lake District, O. G. Jones (Abraham, Keswick), 1900; Rock-Climbing in North Wales, G. and A. Abraham (Abraham, Keswick), 1906; Rock-Climbing in Skye, A. P. Abraham (Longmans), 1908; British Mountain Climbs, G. D. Abraham (Mills and Boon), 1909; Mountaineering and Exploration in the Japanese Alps, W. Weston (Murray), 1896; Climbing and Exploration in the Karakoram Himalayas, Sir M. Conway (Unwin), 1894; The Karakorams and Kashmir, O. Eckenstein (Unwin), 1896; In the Ice World of the Himalayas, Fanny B. and W. H. Workman (Unwin), 1901; Five Months in the Himalaya, A. L. Mumm (Arnold), 1909; Across East African Glaciers, Hans Meyer (Philip), 1891; Among the Selkirk Glaciers, W. S. Green (Mac- Caves and potholes are most frequently met with in limestone regions, and are mainly formed by the dissolution of the water. This chiefly takes place in the line of fissures and divisions of the strata, thus forming, in the former case, the shafts and, in the latter, the caves.

The mechanical or erosive action of water also assists in the work.

In Yorkshire and Derbyshire in England, in Ireland, France-notably in the district called Les Causses-Austria, Asia Minor, Australia, America, and many other parts of the world, these caves and holes abound, and in some cases their depths exceed 600 feet, and caverns of immense size, containing stalactites and stalagmites of great beauty, are met with.

Some of these caves were made use of by prehistoric man and animals as habitations, and it was in the exploration of these for scientific and archæological purposes that the early systematic work was donenotably by Professor Boyd-Dawkins; but deeply interesting as is the result of such work, yet, in an article treating of the exploration as a sport, this phase cannot be dealt with. This early work ceased where the difficulty of access was great enough to preclude the possible, or at any rate probable, use of the cave by animals and prehistoric man, and therefore the scientist, arriving at this point, would finish his notes on the cave with the words "inaccessible CAVE EXPLORATION] beyond." This point is now being pushed further, and it is with the sporting qualities and methods of such exploration that this article is concerned.

Cave work may be roughly divided into two kinds, that dealing with caves entered directly on an approximately horizontal plane, and that where entrance has to be effected by means of a pothole," or "swallow hole," as the deep and more or less vertical clefts and shafts in the surface of the fell limestone are called. a The former is generally a much simpler and easier business than the latter, and a party of three or four men is usually ample above the reach of the water; but many passages are completely submerged during times of heavy rain, and the possibility of being caught in such a situation should be guarded against by extreme caution and watchfulness. Work underground should only be attempted during settled fine weather, thundery weather being especially dangerous, for the bursting of a storm on the hills and the rapid drainage of the water into its underground channels may quickly result in retreat being cut off with possibly disastrous results.

The weather must be carefully watched by the men on the surface, and the baro- GAPING GHYLI. HOLE, INGLEBORO', YORKSHIRE. GENERAL VIEW, SHOWING NATURE OF THE GROUND. and convenient. The course of a subterranean stream or river may possibly be encountered, and then the interest will be increased and the fun may begin, but at the same time one of the risks peculiar to this form of sport may appear in the shape of a possible inrush of water from heavy rain outside. This possible danger is also to be borne in mind when, after the descent of a pothole has been accomplished, exploration of passages is being pursued. Twice within the last few years Yorkshire parties have been imprisoned by the unexpected flooding of potholes. Fortunately, in neither case was any more serious result involved than great discomfort from wet and cold, and some shortness of commons before the water diminished enough to allow the parties to escape. In each of these cases it was possible to find a resting-place meter read and recorded at regular short intervals.

That branch of the sport which includes the descent of a shaft hundreds of feet in depth is a more serious and more sporting class of work, and more likely to afford adventure to its votaries. It has been aptly termed " mountaineering reversed," and it is from the ranks of climbing men that most of the cave and pothole explorers come; their training specially qualifies them to deal with the difficulties encountered. For this class of exploration a larger party is usually required, varying from five or six for a place which can be dealt with by ropeladders, to three or four times that number where the difficulties demand more elaborate methods, although in the former case special conditions may be met with, requiring more men.

The foregoing rough classification cannot be considered as final, although indicative of the main differences. Caves are of very varied structure, and a passage may lead to a deep descent, and, after it, may continue again, while potholes often have passages leading from them which may be simple or consist of a combination of pitches" and galleries. At any time the explorers may be confronted in the darkness by unexpected difficulties, and the understanding of these facts at the outset will 66 WEATHERCOTE CAVE, CHAPEL-LE-DALE, YORKSHIRE. explain the need for the extensive apparatus subsequently described.

By far the best and most enterprising work has been, and is being, carried out by the Société de Spéléologie of Paris, whose secretary, Mons. Martel, is probably the most enthusiastic exponent of the sport, and whose works on the subject should be read by all who seek for further information.

Since the foundation of the Yorkshire Ramblers' Club in 1892 its members have descended and explored numerous potholes and caves in England and Ireland. They have specially directed their attention to the limestone regions of Yorkshire, and there are probably very few caves and potholes of the first class in that district which have not been explored. The work of surveying some of them is in progress at present, and it is hoped that the tracing and examina- [CAVE EXPLORATION tion of this extensive system of subterranean waterways will prove to be of considerable scientific and hydrographic value. The work of the Yorkshire Ramblers is recorded in the pages of the Club Journal, which is published annually.

Tackle. It is imperative that all tackle should be of the best procurable quality and workmanship, as it may be subjected to great and unforeseen strains.

The ropes are the most valuable and important articles. They should be specially made by hand and of selected Manilla hemp. This is extremely strong for its weight, and stands any unavoidable rough usage and friction better than ordinary qualities. The rope afterwards referred to as the windlass rope should be not less than -inch diameter, and the safety rope -inch diameter, for, although this latter might be lighter without being too weak for its purpose, it must be remembered that a thin rope is bad to handle, and a man's hold on it is thereby weakened. For English work these ropes are most useful in 400-feet lengths. Shorter lengths would frequently necessitate joining, thus weakening the rope and adding an increased difficulty and possible danger by the liability of the knot to catch in clefts, with a probable result of dislodging loose fragments and of being difficult to free. Strong sash cord is useful for a variety of purposes, and in particular for lashings and guy ropes.

Rope-ladders. -The ladders used are made with sides of half-inch diameter rope with hardwood rungs. Experience shows that it is very important that the rungs should not be more than eight or nine inches apart a longer step becomes excessively fatiguing in a long ascent. The ladders are most useful in lengths of 30 or 35 feet.

The side ropes are continued about three feet beyond the end rungs, and this extension affords a ready means of fastening the lengths together. One of the ladders may have its top bar made of wrought-iron and provided with three rings or eyes, the use for which will be seen later. a The Windlass. This should have drum with a circumference of about two feet and of a similar length. A drum of greater circumference makes for more rapid haulage, but increases the labour tremendously, while a smaller one is easier to work, but gives the occupant of the boatswain's chair a longer journey than is desirable, particularly if, as is often the case, the descent or ascent has to be made through falling water. It must be strong, and made in sections to bolt together for portability, as, with all the other apparatus, it CAVE EXPLORATION] will probably have to be conveyed over rough ground. It must be provided with two crank handles set at right angles to each other and securely fixed on the drum spindle to prevent their working off. A strong ratchet check should be affixed, and if a thoroughly dependable band brake could be secured it might be an advantage.

Sundries.-Snatch blocks and other kinds of pulleys, pitons, or holdfasts, wooden stakes, crowbars, planks, strong carpentry tools, &c., are also requisite.

The following instruments are necessary for surveying: aneroid barometer, thermometer, prismatic compass, clinometer, surveying tape or chain. A miner's dial has been used, but for intricate or very low passages it can hardly be recommended, owing to the difficulty of reading it under such conditions.

A telephone is probably the best means of communication between the explorer and those at the surface, especially when an exploration lasts any length of time. It enables the requirements and movements of the party to be fully and rapidly made known. a A simple but less perfect device is strong string lowered with a note-book and pencil attached. If this be fastened to the lever of a loud bell or gong at the surface, a pull at the string from below will announce when a note has to be drawn up.

Lights. Most of the work underground is done by the light of thick tallow candles (eight to the lb.) affixed by a lump of clay to the front of a specially made hard hat, such as is used by the miners of Cornwall.

This method has the great advantage of leaving the hands free, and the hat or helmet serves to protect the head. Each member of a party will also carry a reserve of two or three thick tallow candles in a tin case, and a supply of waterproof matches, rendered so by dipping in melted paraffin wax. Where it is desired to illuminate more than the immediate vicinity, acetylene lamps of various sizes have been used with excellent results. They give a strong light, and are practically unextinguishable by wind or water. Magnesium ribbon and powder are used for lighting up large places and for photography. Naphtha flare lamps may be useful, but are dangerous and unpleasant. At a depth of 200 to 350 feet down a shaft open to the sky, artificial light will not be needed, unless the orifice at the surface be very small.

We will now proceed to show the method of using the above apparatus by describing the descent of a pothole. Obviously, the first essential is to find the approximate depth. This may be done by plumbing with a thin strong line marked off in divisions of, say, 20 feet, and with a weight of 4 considerable thickness be used it will be or 5 lb. on the end. If a long line of any difficult to tell when the weight touches the bottom, owing to the heaviness of cord.

Let us assume that the depth is found to be about 300 feet, and that, being a clear and vertical drop, it is decided to use a windlass and rope as the means of descent. The windlass should be fixed so some 20 feet back from the mouth of the ROWTEN POT, KINGSDALE, YORKSHIRE. BRIDGE LEVEL 100 FEET FROM THE SURFACE. shaft, and on ground as level as possible, so that those working at it (two at each handle) may have freedom of action. It must be thoroughly guyed back, have heavy stakes driven into the ground directly in stones piled on its platform, and, if possible, front of it. The windlass rope should pass over a pulley fixed in the best position well over the mouth of the pot, so that it may run clear of the sides.

Fixed to the end of the rope should be a "boatswain's chair" or other contrivance in which the explorer can sit. Around his body should be a leather belt with a spring hook to attach to the windlass rope near its junction with the chair. This will keep him in an upright position, allow the free use of both arms, and act as a safeguard against the possible chance of his slipping from his seat.

Another and very necessary rope, to be paid out by hand, should be tied around his body as a safety line. A stake should be driven into the ground within easy reach of the man or men paying it out, in order that they can, on occasion, stop and hold the rope by what is nautically called "taking a turn."

The object of paying this out by hand is that there may be touch be tween those on the top and the man descending, as, if let out from a second windlass, the speed might differ from that of the main rope; if quicker it would hang loose and be useless, and if slower would cause unpleasant compression of the man's body.

As is generally known, there is considerable amount 66 دو a of spin in [CAVE EXPLORATION Another method by which this objectionable" spin" can be obviated is to have a rope made fast at the top and bottom of the shaft and stretched as taut as possible.

One side of the boatswain's chair is connected to this by a pulley or running wheel. and spinning becomes impossible. It is not a long rope, however well it may be made and stretched.

The unpleasant consequences of this can be much lessened by the man who is being lowered carryother ing in his hands a bamboo or other light rod of a length suited to the diameter of the shaft. With this, a slight touch on the walls is sufficient to counteract ABOUT TO DESCEND GAPING GHYLL HOLE. a the spinning tendency, and even if out of reach, by swinging it sharply round at arm's length in the opposite direction to the twist of the rope, the same effect can be obtained. be always possible to use this guide rope, but when it can be used it works excellently. Moreover, if, at the bottom, the guide rope can be fastened somewhat out of the vertical line, it will probably be useful in guiding the chair out of the way of falling water or any more solid object which might be dropped from above. 66 Signals. -A code of signals for regulating the descent must be arranged. Possibly the best is one by whistle, the voice not being sufficiently articulate at great depths on account of echoes and reverberations.

One whistle should mean Stop!" two, "Pull up," and three, "Lower." The whistle used ought to have a loud, shrill tone, but its use is not arbitrary, as the code will apply to any method of signalling. a As the first man descends he must keep a good look-out for, and clear away, any loose stones which are likely to fall or be dislodged by the ropes, and great care must CAVE EXPLORATION] be taken that all loose stones, &c., round the mouth of the hole on the surface are cleared away, so that nothing may be accidentally knocked down while men are below. A tiny stone falling 300 feet would kill a man as surely as a bullet if it struck him on the head.

All the signals must be responded to with the utmost promptitude, especially when the bottom is being neared, or the man who is being lowered may get a nasty bump.

Another method of descent is by ropeladders. This is suitable for places which descend in a series of drops or "pitches," where there are ledges of varying widths.

With a total length of 150 feet of ladder much may be done.

Having plumbed a depth of, say, 100 feet from the surface, the ladder is tied to two ropes (or to both ends of one rope) of not less than 1-inch diameter, one at each end ring of its top bar. If possible, a plank should be fixed across the mouth of the shaft, over which the ropes attached to the ladder may hang, in order to avoid knocking down any loose earth or rock. The ropes carrying the ladder should be made fast to a couple of stakes driven into the ground a little distance from the lip of the "pot," and then, secured by a safety rope, paid out by hand over a pulley fixed into the plank, the exploring party will in turn descend.

It may be found that the place the party have reached is not the bottom, and that the plumb-line is again required. Assuming that it reveals another considerable drop, the ladder will have to be lowered until its head is level with the ledge occupied by the party, and then either be made fast there or, preferably, above.

The raising and lowering of the ladder will be facilitated by a length of sash cord being tied to the middle ring of the top bar of the ladder, passed through a pulley on the beam, and allowed to hang down the hole. Then the men on the first landing place will be able to help, by steadying and holding it while the ropes on the surface are being secured. This procedure may be repeated until the actual bottom is reached. If, however, the party is fully equipped with a sufficiency of tackle it will probably save time to fix ladders for each pitch as it is encountered. That the method described above is a practical one is proved by the fact that the first descent of a pothole 320 feet deep was made by a small party reconnoitring with only 135 feet of ladder. It must be remembered that the descent and ascent by rope-ladders is a very toilsome proceeding, and that practically no rest can be taken while on the ladder itself beyond getting breath, as the ladder swings away from the vertical line, which throws the man's weight almost entirely on his hands and arms.

For this reason, if for no other, a windlass is to be preferred for a deep descent which cannot be negotiated by a series of drops where rests may be taken.

Practice and training develop the necessary muscles, and, what seems to be of almost more importance, a knack is acquired which considerably reduces the labour. A GAPING GHYLL HOLE. "THE LEDGE," 190 FEET FROM THE SURFACE. strong party have frequently descended a pothole of 350 feet by rope ladder, done many hours of hard work underground, and ascended in the same manner. This is a considerable test of endurance, and is not lessened by their having to carry with them food, instruments, and tackle for the work below.

It must also not be forgotten that if a man becomes exhausted through extreme exertion or exposure to cold and wet, or meets with an accident to a limb, he cannot well be got out without a windlass. It would be well to disabuse the inexperienced mind of the idea that a man can be drawn out of a deep hole by his safety rope, as, although this might be done, and has been [CAVE CAVE EXPLORATION A B SECTIONAL DIAGRAM OF A "POTHOLE," ILLUSTRATING METHOD OF DESCENT, &c.

A. Mouth of "pot."

A to B. Vertical shaft.

C. Cavern at foot of shaft.

D. Horizontal passage.

E. Second pitch, with rope-ladders in position.

F. Subterranean lake. a. Windlass, with two men at each handle. b. Windlass rope. c. Pulley fixed over mouth of hole. d. Man listening for signals from below. e. Light wooden ladder, leading to horizontal passage. f. Explorer on raft.

N.B. The safety rope referred to in letterpress has been purposely omitted in order not to cause a confusion of ropes in a drawing on such a small scale; in practice, it would pass over another pulley adjacent to the one marked C on the diagram. A short length of rope-ladder would be suspended from the beam across the opening to facilitate the start in descending and the landing in ascending -this has also been left out for above reason.

C D E F RAY CAVE EXPLORATION] done, by a large party of strong men on the surface, it would, at best, be a painful and slow experience, and for a small party probably an impossibility. Therefore let the safety rope be considered only as a means of checking a slip from the ladder and for affording support when a halt is made for any purpose.

Having reached the bottom of the pothole, it should be thoroughly examined and a plan made. Passages may be discovered running out of it, which should be followed so far as is possible.

Horizontal Caves and Passages.-One hundred feet of Alpine climbing rope should be taken. An ice-axe or a modified form of that tool will be found useful in many ways. Before leaving the foot of the shaft, a string should be made fast, and paid out by the last man of the party. This is an imperative precaution, as passages may be found to ramify and multiply in a bewildering manner, and if a wrong turning be taken on the way back, the result may be more than disagreeable. With the guiding string a man might find his way back in the dark-a possible contingency if much water is encountered to put out lamps, &c.

The characteristics of a single passage may be various. It may be wide and shallow, or lofty and narrow, through every gradation. A drop in the level of a passage may necessitate climbing, which must only be undertaken with all possible precautions, for while a man may be a brilliant mountaineer and cragsman, he may now have to deal with rotten rock, and with only such light as is given by lamps or candles. In fact, any operation of difficulty must now be treated with increased respect, as the party is practically cut off from immediate outside help, and no unnecessary risk should be taken.

In some passages, streams and pools of water are found. The general temperature of these places being about 48° F. winter and summer, it follows that inflowing water is speedily reduced to that temperature. So long as not more than hip deep, it is not very uncomfortable, but, when deep enough to cover the body, the chilling effects of such a temperature are soon felt. For this reason, if it be thought desirable to swim across a pool to see if further progress be possible the swimmer should have a light rope tied round him. On some expeditions, large lakes and streams are encountered, and for these special preparations have to be made.

A raft of hermetically sealed tins with a covering of laths made in sections to bolt together has been used by the present writers with success. Its great advantage over a Berthon or other collapsible canvas boat is its power to resist the rough usage incidental to getting it to its launching place.

A raft made in this fashion, to carry 200 lb., weighs about 60 lb.

Having briefly described the main methods of exploring potholes which re- THE GREAT CAVERN, GAPING GHYLL, 35° FEET FROM THE SURFACE. LESS THAN 30 FEET OF THE LADDER, AND LESS THAN A QUARTER OF THE SHAFT, IS SEEN IN THE PHOTO- GRAPH. quire the use of mechanical appliances, it is hardly necessary to refer to the manner of dealing with those smaller holes, which can be safely explored if the ordinary climbing precautions taken by mountaineers are adopted.

Knots, Hitches, &c. -As may be readily inferred, where there is so great a need of the constant use of ropes, safe knots only should be used, and knowledge and practice in making these should be previously acquired.

The following axioms should be invariably borne in mind :-. Clear away all loose stones, &c., from the surface near the hole.

All planks, struts, &c., in use at the top of the shaft should be securely lashed back so that in case of a breakage they do not fall down.

A party should never start on the exploration of a passage without a sufficient length of climbing rope. This is due not only to themselves but to their friends above ground, who cannot know when they are in danger.

Watch the weather carefully always.

Like its kindred sport, mountaineering, cave exploration has its own peculiar fascination and charm. The adventure, the charm of entering the unknown, the delight of pioneering, the weird and beautiful effects of dim light on fantastic surroundings, of difficulties faced and overcome by combined effort, all help to counteract the hard work and that occasional hardship inseparable from any manly sport. Its scientific aspects also are varied, and a knowledge of them adds greatly to the lasting impression made on the imagination. JOHN A. GREEN.

EDWARD CALVERT.

FRANK ELLET.

THOMAS GRAY.

Bibliography. -The Ice Caves of France and Switzerland, G. F. Browne (Longmans), 1865; Cave Hunting: Researches on the Evidence of Caves respecting the Early Inhabitants of Europe, W. Boyd-Dawkins (Macmillan), 1874; Celebrated American Caverns, J. C. Hovey (Clarke, Cincinnati), 1882; On Caves, T. McK. Hughes, Paper read before the Victoria Institute, Journal Transactions, Vol. XXI., pp. 77-97 (V. Inst., London), 1887; Glacieres or Freezing Caverns, E. S. Balch (Allen, Lane and Scott, Philadelphia), 1900; The Geology of Ingleborough: The Caves, R. H.

Tiddeman, Memoirs of the Geog. Survey, pp. 33-40 (Eyre and Spottiswoode), 1890; Les Cévennes et la Région des Causses, E.-A. Martel (Delagrave, Paris), 1890; The Craven and North- West Yorkshire Highlands, H. Speight (Stock), 1892; Les Abîmes, Explorations souterraines effectuées de 1888 à 1893 en France, Belgique, Autriche et Grèce, E.-A. Martel (Delagrave, Paris), 1894; The Deserts of Southern France, S. Baring-Gould (Methuen), 1894; Tramps and Drives in the Craven Highlands, H. Speight (Stock), 1895; Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie, A.-E. Martel, Secretary (Paris), 1896; British Caves and Speleology, E.-A. Martel, The Geographical Journal, Vol. X., pp. 500-511, November, 1897; Irlande et Cavernes Anglaises, E.-A. Martel (Delagrave, Paris), 1897; Exploration Scientifique dans les Cavernes, &c., de Liège, E. Doudou (Thone, Liège), 1904; Die Höhlen der fränkischen Schweiz. A. Neischl (Schrag. Nürnberg), 1904; Moors, Crags, and Caves of the High Peak, Ernest A. Baker (John Heywood, Manchester [1903], 6s.); The Netherworld of Mendip, Ernest A. Baker and Herbert E. Balch (Simpkin, Ramblers' Club Journal, Leeds (from July, 1899).

Marshall and Co., 1907, 7s. 6d.); The MULE-DEER (Mazama nemionus or cariacus macrotis). This deer, which derives its name from the size of the ears, is found in considerable numbers throughout the Western States of America and British Columbia, although, in the larger [CAVE EXPLORATION portion of the area over which it is distributed, it is known as the "black-tail" deer. With the exception, perhaps, of MULE-DEER. (NO. 1.) the ears, it may be described as a handsome deer, although it has not the majestic appearance of the wapiti, nor the gracefulness of the white-tailed deer.

Colour. This varies according to the season of the year, the summer coat being a dull yellow turning towards autumn and winter to grey. The belly is very dark, almost black, becoming lighter towards the groin, while between the thighs it is nearly white, this colour extending to the rump, and making a conspicuous mark when the animal is viewed a posteriori.. Below the knees and hocks the legs are of a dark cinnamon-colour, which, however, becomes lighter as the season advances. The forehead is generally dark, in some cases nearly black, to a point ending between the eyes, while the throat is frequently almost white.

The tail, which varies from 6 to IO inches in length, is of a yellowish white colour, MULE-DEER] with the exception of a tuft of hair at the extreme point, which is black. Different individuals, however, vary somewhat in regard to colouring.

Antlers. These appear to be subject to considerable variations in shape, in some individuals the beam and tines having a greater general inward tendency than in others. The average pair of antlers shows IO points (although a much greater number is by no means uncommon) and may be described as spreading laterally and upwards from the head in a line with the face with a double bifurcation of the beam, each bifurcation forking into two tines. One or more snags appear from 2 to 3 inches above the burr. The accompanying illustrations are from photographs of the heads of deer killed in Colorado, and are good specimens, although, perhaps, a little above the average in the cases of Nos. I and 2, and far above in the case of No. 3.

In No. I the right antler is 25 inches long, round the burr is 74 inches, while 2 inches above the burr the beam is 5½ inches in circumference. The left antler is 24 inches long, round the burr 8 inches, and 2 inches above the burr 5 inches. The width between the antlers is 26 inches. The points are 22. This head is an example of the general inward tendency of the beam and tines.

In No. 2 the right antler is 27 inches long, round the burr is 8 inches, and 2 inches above the burr 5 inches. The left antler has the same length, while round the burr it is 7 inches, and 2 inches above it 5 inches.

The width between the antlers is 29 inches.

The points number 12.

No. 3 is by far the most remarkable pair of antlers I have ever met with. It will be noticed that the antlers grow out laterally in nearly horizontal directions, no other deer except the moose showing this lateral direction. The result of this abnormal direction is that the antlers show the astonishing spread of 41 inches, the actual measurements being as follows:-Right antler 30 inches in length, round the burr 10 inches, 2½ inches above the burr, 5 inches. Left antler 30 inches, burr 10, 2½ inches above burr, 5 inches.

Width between the antlers 41 inches.

Points 18. When it is remembered that the average number of points cannot be said to exceed 12 in any event, while the average width is about 25 to 26 inches, it will readily be understood what a marvellous head this particular deer carried.

Weight. The average live weight is about 200 lb. (25 stone), although individuals have been killed up to 300 lb. Habits and Shooting. -The mule-deer is probably the most sporting deer on the American continent, for it is occasion- MULE-DEER. (NO. 2.) ally possible to stalk him in the orthodox fashion, although by far the larger number are killed by what is called "still hunting" in America-namely, by crawling after them in thick timber and chancing a shot at close quarters. They feed at night, and the older bucks generally betake themselves in the early morning to the highest available timbered ground, and lie down for the day. They are not so gregarious as the wapiti, although considerable bands of does, young bucks, and fawns may often be met with, and consequently the stalker will not be likely to encounter more than one buck at a time.

They are also much shyer than wapiti, and have a trick of creeping away unseen, but when "jumped" and thoroughly alarmed, bound rapidly away, all feet leaving and striking the ground at the same time, a means of progression which soon seems to become fatiguing. They have four paces, a walk, a shambling kind of trot, a gallop, and the rapid and exhausting bound above referred to. Notwithstanding its awkward movements, it is astonishing what a great distance a wounded buck will travel. The rutting season commences early in October, the antlers being, as a rule, out of the velvet by the beginning of September. When the MULE-DEER. (NO. 3.) heavy snows commence on the mountains, a considerable migration takes place to lower grounds, and it is at these periodical movements that the Ranchman takes so heavy a toll on the herds for winter meat. A sure but by no means sportsmanlike way of shooting this deer is to watch a salt "lick," and many a good buck and even doe is killed in this way. A 303 rifle can safely be recommended for mule-deer, although the majority of sportsmen on the American continent use a Winchester of various models.

In recent years most of the State legislatures have passed enactments protecting game within their jurisdictions, and in consequence of these laws (which, however, it may be stated, are unfortunately often exceedingly difficult to enforce), the muledeer shows no sign of diminution in numbers in fact, in some districts, appear to be actually increasing. Aided by protection and its own habits and favourite locations, it will probably hold its own as long as any deer in America.

HENRY A. JAMES.

MULLET, GREY (Thick-lipped).— MEASUREMENTS, &c. -Length of head 4 to 5, of caudal fin 51, height of body 4 to 5 times in the total length. Eyes-withour adipose lids. Snout obtuse; upper lip rather thick, with two or three rows of papillæ on its lowest portion. A narrow strip of the chin is uncovered. Teeth-fine, labial ones in the upper lip. Fins-the dorsal commences somewhat nearer the [MULE-DEER caudal fin, or midway between it and the end of the snout; spines stout, the two first of the same height, and equalling that of the post-orbital length of the head. The interspace between the two dorsal fins equal to, or slightly exceeding, that of the base of the first dorsal. Second dorsal anteriorly slightly higher than the first. Pectoral inserted somewhat above the centre of the depth of the body, and its length equalling that of the head excluding the snout.

Ventral inserted midway between the origins of the pectoral and first dorsal fin. Anal below the second dorsal and rather higher than it. Caudal forked, the length of each lobe being about equal, and rather less than that of the head. Scales-about twenty-six between the snout and the base of the first dorsal fin. Colours-Grey shot with bronze about the head, cheeks golden, sides silvery dashed with gold; a dark line along each row of scales along the back and sides.

Day, Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland. vol. i. p. 232. as MUNTJAC (Cervulus muntjac). This animal is also known as Barking Deer and Rib-faced Deer. In the Himalaya mountains and their vicinity it is called Kakar, in Nepal Ratwa, and in Madras by the anomalous name Jungle Sheep.

JEM MUNTJAC.

Distribution.- Muntjac of various kinds range all over south-eastern Asia. They are found in almost all the more or less MUSK OX] hilly forest tracts of Hindustan, including the Himalayas, up to an altitude of about 8,000 feet. They occur also in Assam, Ceylon (there called Red Hog Deer), Burma, the peninsula and many of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, and in China, but are seldom met with north of latitude 32°.

Description.-Muntjacs ription. jungle-loving animals, and usually solitary, FEMALE MUNTJAC. are distinctly although two or even three may sometimes be found together. The height of an Indian kakar is about 23 inches. The hair is short, smooth, and bright rufous bay in colour, becoming darker on the delicately formed limbs; white on the throat and beneath the tail, which is comparatively long for a deer.

The head is peculiar, that of the buck being surmounted with two prolongations of the V-shaped, ribbed frontal bone, about 3 inches long and covered with skin and hair.

On these hairy pedicels grow the antlers, which, in a good buck, are 4 or 5 inches in length, curving inwards near their tips, and having one short prong just above each burr, projecting forward and slightly upward. The buck's upper jaw is provided with a pair of sharp canine teeth, sometimes extending quite half an inch over the lower lips. For what purpose they are intended is uncertain. Care is necessary when handling a wounded buck, lest in its struggles it should inflict a nasty cut with one of them. The doe is similar to the buck, with the exception that it lacks the hairy pedicels, the antlers, and the long canines.

Habits. The kakar is most frequently found where thick cover is interspersed with patches of cultivation. In the latter, when the crops are green, it may often be found out feeding in the early morning and the dusk of evening, but usually so close to cover that, in the grey dawn and twilight, VOL. III it is not easily detected until the white of its tail is seen bobbing off into the jungle, whence its alarm-note-a hoarse, single bark, more often heard at night comes at short intervals. When moving quickly through cover, it carries its head low and its tail high, and generally makes a succession of clicking sounds, but how these are produced the writer has been unable to ascertain.

In the Ningpo district of China a darker species, with a tuft of long hair on the top of the head, is found.

When guns are posted, the drivers should move as noiselessly as possible, otherwise kakar are as likely as not to break back.

Up to about 30 yards a charge of No. 5 shot will roll one over, but where met with in partially open, hilly tracts they often afford pretty shots for the rifle.

DONALD MACINTYRE.

R. LYDEKKER.

MUSK-OX (Ovibos moschatus). The Musk-Ox, despite its name, has no affinity with either oxen or sheep, but is probably more nearly related to the takin and serow.

The hair is so long as to make the beast appear larger than it really is, and to conceal the ears and tail. The massive horns, which are rougher and of lighter hue at their base than at the tips, curve downwards in a remarkable manner. The limbs are short, a character emphasised by the thick hair with which they are clad; and the flesh has a peculiar flavour that has suggested the name. a Habitat. In the early ages of the world's history, the musk-ox was widely distributed throughout the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, but its present range is limited to the little-known corner of North America lying to the north and east of line drawn from Fort Churchill on Hudson's Bay to the mouth of the Mackenzie and the adjacent islands of the Arctic Sea. It occurs in Greenland also, and Peary met with it at the most northerly point of one of his journeys: so we may reasonably suppose that the muskox exists as far to the northward as the m mosses on which it lives.

Two methods of reaching this country are open to the sportsman. The first is to take a small vessel through Hudson's Straits in the summer and sail as far as the ice allows up Chesterfield Inlet. From there a short inland expedition would no doubt bring you among the musk-oxen, but this would probably entail a long, dreary winter's inactivity with vessel and crew lying idle, for the Straits are R closed by ice early in autumn. Until comparatively recently an agent of the Hudson's Bay Company used to make an annual visit to Marble Island from Fort Churchill to meet the Esquimaux, and many musk-ox skins were brought there by the inhabitants of Chesterfield Inlet, but this trading expedition has been abandoned.

By far the easiest method of reaching the musk-ox country is to start from one of the Hudson Bay posts on the Great Slave Lake, easily reached by the company's [From a drawing by E. Caldwell.

MUSK Ox. ordinary trade route from Edmonton. If a man is capable of making up his mind that he will really start the next summer, his best plan is at once to notify the Hudson Bay Company officials at Winnipeg of his intention. A winter packet is sent to the north from Winnipeg every year, and arrangements can thus be made by which the sportsman will reach the Great Slave Lake by the middle of July and find hunters, canoes, and everything he wants in readiness, instead of having to wait perhaps a couple of months before he can get anyone to go with him. Early in August he should be at the north-east end of the main lake ready for a start to the Barren Ground.

A large and a small canoe should be carried over the mountain to any of the chains of lakes well known to the Indians.

Hunting. Let the hunters take their wives, dogs, and household gods with them to the last bunch of straggling pine trees about one hundred miles from the big lake.

Here a main camp should be made, with due consideration of the habits of the caribou and the chances of catching fish.

During the absence of the hunters the women will be fully occupied in drying [MUSK OX meat and making snow-shoes and moccasins. No attempt to carry any great amount of provisions should be made, as the Indians insist upon eating everything promptly instead of carrying it. Take an abundance of tea, tobacco, and ammunition for trading purposes a small barrel of powder assumes a fabulous value in the Barren Ground when the caribou are passing. By September Ist the hunters should be off to the north, taking with them the little canoe for crossing lakes and streams -one man can carry her easily except in a strong wind. The direction chosen will probably be towards the copper mine on the Great Fish River, according to Indian advice. Musk-ox are pretty sure to be found within a few days, and caribou are everywhere abundant at this time of year, so there will be no difficulty about provisions. Skins and heads could be cached away among the rocks, to be hauled in later by dog sleighs. They should be made as light as possible, but it is not necessary to clean them perfectly, as the weather will be cold already. The musk-oxen, when found, are easily approached with the most ordinary precautions. When enough have been killed, a return should be made to the main camp and a few weeks passed in hunting caribou till the ice in the lake admits of travelling with dog sleighs. Should the hunt have failed, another journey must be made in November, but this involves hauling wood for fuel besides all the usual discomforts of Arctic travel in winter. It is a dirty, miserable experience, and ends in finding a band of musk-ox which are held at bay by dogs and slaughtered to the last one, or, worse still, in a disastrous flight for the shelter of the woods, if no muskox are found, for all the caribou take to the woods when the intense cold sets in.

By the middle of December the ice on the Great Slave Lake has set right across, and if the hunter is in a hurry to reach civilisation he can quite easily continue his journey to Edmonton on snow-shoes.

There are trading posts at convenient distances where he can replenish his provisions by the way. WARBURTON PIKE.

R. LYDEKKER.

MUSKALONGE (Lucius maskinonge). - The muskalonge is a fish of the pike family, inhabiting the Great Lakes, the St.

Lawrence basin and waters to the northward, the Upper Mississippi Valley, the basin of the Ohio, and lakes in Western New York and Western Pennsylvania. It is not now abundant in any part of the Great MUSKALONGE Lakes region, but is still common enough in the St. Lawrence, Northern Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and in Chautauqua Lake, New York, to maintain the enthusiasm of anglers who seek large fish. 66 دو 66 Name and Characteristics. The origin and meaning of the name are unsettled, and, in fact, the priority of the Indian word, Maskinongé, is well supported; but, whether it be a long nose or a spotted pike," the species is a highly-prized member of a widely distributed family of game fishes, and is so well set off by important characters as to be easily distinguished from its kinsfolk, the pike and the pickerels.

First, it has no scales upon the lower half of the cheek and gill-cover, in this differing from all other members of its family.

Second, its gill-membrane is supported by a much larger number of bony rays than in the pike and pickerels. Third, it is usually grey on the upper part of the body, pale below, the sides with many roundish, distinct, or confluent dark spots, the fins being also black-spotted. The small eye has a ground colour of silvery-white overlaid with lemon-yellow, at least in the muskalonge of Chautauqua Lake. The latter variety lacks dark spots and has numerous irregular, dark cross-bands interspersed with half-bands and blotches. There is also, in lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota, a variety which lacks both spots and bands, and has the sides uniformly bluish-grey.

The pike has elongated, pale blotches on a dark grey ground, while the pickerels have more or less distinct dark bands or a network of narrow dark lines upon the sides. Differences of colour, however, are far less important in separating the fishes of the pike family than the anatomical characters above mentioned.

Races of Muskalonge. - The latest classification of the varieties of muskalonge admits three forms-the typical blackspotted fish of the Great Lakes region and northward, the Ohio muskalonge, which is also black-spotted and appears to differ little from the northern type, and the unspotted muskalonge of lakes in Wisconsin, Minnesota, New York, and Pennsylvania.

If this last variety has been correctly interpreted, the bands become obsolete with age and spots are never present. The writer has seen only the head of an Ohio muskalonge. This was obscurely black-spotted, but those who saw the fish stated that the head was spotted with dark, regular, round spots on the jaws and gill-covers, and that the entire body was similarly marked.

The muskalonge of Chautauqua Lake is THE TATE LIBRARY, BRIXTON, S.W. very beautiful and is in good repute as a food and game fish. The body is olivegreen with golden tints. The lower third of the pectoral fins is pink. The eye is silvery-white overlaid with lemon-yellow.

The sides bear about twenty irregular crossbands with several intervening blotches and partial bands. The fins of the back, tail and anal region have dark blotches forming pseudo-bands. Series of tubes resembling those of the lateral line are distributed over various parts of the body with little regularity.

Ferocity. A glance at the inside of the mouth of a big muskalonge will suffice to determine its character as a predaceous animal. In a fish 44 inches long the head measured 9 inches. Besides the formidable bands of teeth in the jaws, there is, in the middle of the roof of the mouth, a patch 35 inches long, and a band on each side of the palate 3 inches long. The tongue has a long series of sharp teeth, coming to a fine point in front and widening out behind; the fronts of the gill-blades are heavily armed with forty or more clumps of stout, spiny tubercles. This armament, in connection with its great size, often exceeding 50 lb., and its giant strength, makes the muskalonge one of the most formidable of the fresh-water fishes of prey.

Habits. The species is not gregarious, but usually occur in pairs, and there is a strong bond of personal attachment. It feeds upon smaller fishes, and, sometimes, upon vegetable substances growing under the water. Favourite feeding-grounds are over shallow bars, whereon water plants grow and almost reach the surface. In Chautauqua Lake the fish feeds in summer and winter in nearly the same places, and always near to the weeds. When the lake becomes very clear (in February) it goes into deeper water, but it is found in the depths more or less all the year. It is reported that the fish feed and are often caught on bright moonlit nights.

Spawning begins in April, soon after the ice leaves the lakes. The fish go into water 10 to 15 feet deep and spawn on the mud, generally in bays, or they may go among the rushes and grasses near the shores of streams. The eggs are free, non-adhesive, and about one-tenth of an inch in diameter.

Some writers state that they are slightly adhesive and stick to water plants. A large female in Chautauqua Lake furnished sixty thousand eggs. In artificial hatching the ova are placed in boxes provided with screen tops and bottoms; the boxes are sunk from I foot to 2 feet under the surface, and every day or two they are R2 drawn up, the covers removed, and all the sediment and bad eggs cleaned out. In Chautauqua Lake the males are four times as numerous as the females, but the females are much the larger. [MUSKALONGE spoons of the sizes Nos. 7 and 8 are recommended. The boatman will row along, about 20 feet distant from the edge of the reeds. The angler, with about 50 feet of line, casts a live bait or spoon among the [By courtesy of the Grand Trunk Railway system.

A GOOD CATCH OF MUSKALONGE. a Game Qualities. As a game fish it ranks below the salmon, most of the trouts, and the black bass; but it is the best of its family, and, in Chautauqua Lake, at least, it is highly esteemed for its fighting qualities and its delicate flesh. September is favourite month for the fishing, and the frosty, moonlit nights of October and November often afford fine sport when one is trolling with chubs or suckers for bait.

The muskalonge does not strike fiercely at live fish, and it must usually be allowed to hook itself. When hooked, it may leave the water two or three times and shake its head to dislodge the hook, or it may go to the bottom and sulk there as sullenly as a salmon. An hour or longer may be required to bring the fish to boat, and in handling such a giant with light tackle, great care and skill are necessary.

The muskalonge is usually caught by trolling with hand-line or rod and line, using a spoon hook or spinner, or with a live frog or minnow for bait. A rod 8½ or 9 feet long, weighing 7 to IO ounces, about 300 feet of No. 9 Cuttyhunk line, and weeds, especially the lily pads, or the line may be trolled astern. The rod should be held parallel with the surface of the water, with its tip well down when the fish leaps, as it is almost sure to do, and the line must be kept as taut as the strength of the rod permits. It is equally important to gaff the fish carefully when exhausted, unless circumstances may render necessary the less sportsmanlike method of killing with a club or a pistol-shot.

TARLETON H. BEAN. [After the black bass, the "lunge," as many American sportsmen call it, is perhaps the favourite fish sought by anglers in the great Canadian Lakes. Lake St. Louis, which may be fished from Ste. Anne de Bellevue, some twenty miles west of Montreal, is a favourite water for these fish, and very fine examples are also taken in Georgian Bay and French River, fishing from Fenton's Camp at Pickerel Landing.

The "spoon" is a monstrous affair, of one huge spoon, painted red inside, or two used tandem on brass wire, a tuft of wool or NILGAI] feathers, and sometimes, though not always, a frog or a pound white carp on one of the tail hooks. Amateurs spend many days in the attempt to hook a big muskalonge, and pay their white or Indian guides demoralising bonuses in the event of success. At the same time, fishing for muskalonge is more of a lottery than even other kinds of fishing, and the visitor will be well advised to devote only a day or so to this capricious fish, spending the rest of his time catching the black bass, which inhabit the same lakes.-ED.] NILGAI (Boselaphus tragocamelus, or Portax pictus). - The Nilgai is the largest of Indian antelopes, and belongs to the tragelaphine group, of which two types only are found in India, viz., the nilgai and the four-horned antelope (Tetraceros quadricornis), both being peculiar to the country.

Description. - Nilgai literally means "blue cattle," and the name is derived from the iron-grey or blue colour of the adult male. The females and young males are of that section, e.g., the kudu and the lesser kudu. Immediately below the white patch on the throat, the male nilgai has a long tuft of black hair 6 or 8 inches long, and a short upright mane is found in both sexes.

Only the males have horns, which are smooth and recurved, slightly corrugated at the base. They are, in good specimens, between 9 and IO inches long.

The nilgai, or, as he is often called, "the blue bull," stands about 13+ hands high at the shoulder. The back slopes downwards towards the tail, which is about 20 inches long, with a tuft of black hair at the end.

The females are much smaller.

Habitat. The nilgai is found throughout India, though rarely in the north and south; it is, generally speaking, a jungle animal, but also inhabits the cultivated fields of Guzerat and Katywar. In the latter districts it is remarkably tame, and allows of a close approach. In the jungles it is as wide awake and as difficult to stalk as any other animal. The old males are often found solitary. The fields are sometimes composed of a large number, but more usually MALE AND FEMALE NILGAI. light brown. The male, if castrated when young, remains a light brown, and does not become grey. The old males are marked with white rings on the fetlocks, a white patch on the throat, and white spots on the cheeks. These white markings are common in the tragelaphine group of antelopes, and are found in several of the African species half a dozen or so. The smaller herds have usually one old blue bull in charge; a herd of twenty would perhaps have as many as three old bulls. The female brings forth one or two young ones.

Shooting. - Nilgai carry but poor trophies, and are seldom shot by Indian sportsmen. When found in cultivated lands, they can often be approached by the simple process of walking so as to pass within shot. Stalking them behind a cart or horse, which is driven or led near them, in the same way as black buck are shot, can also be resorted to. In the jungle they are wary enough, and not easy to get near.

They can be stalked, for the sake of the stalk, without firing at them. If you shoot one, you waste time that is better occupied in looking for deer, for, if shot, the animal has to be skinned, cut up, and the meat carried to camp; for this reason it is as well to let them alone. Tigers often kill them, and I have found an old female killed by a panther. Solitary males I have seen more than once feeding in company with herds of wild buffalo.

Nilgai have been frequently ridden and speared when found away from jungle.

They should be pressed at top speed at first.

Shields are made from the skin. Natives look on the nilgai as an ox, and those to whom the cow is sacred object to their being killed.

J. D. INVERARITY.

OBSOLETE SPORT-BADGER BAITING.—Many animals-the fox, for instance, have to pay a price for their existence, and a century or so ago this is what the badger had to pay for his. -" They dig a place in the earth about a yard long, so that one end is four feet deep. At this end a strong stake is driven down. Then the badger's tail is split, a chain put through it, and fastened to the stake with such ability that the badger can come up to the other end of the place. The dogs are brought and set upon the poor animal, who sometimes destroys several dogs before it is killed." This is a friendly description, and conveys but little idea of the barbarities actually practised. That the badger was not alone the victim of this fiendish cruelty is evident from the concluding sentence of the above quotation. Often half-a-dozen dogs were maimed for life in the contest, a jaw torn away being a common result.

A glance at a badger's armed cranium suggests a good deal in this connection, the interlocking teeth, the "holders," and the way in which the lower jaw is articulated with the upper, explaining the hold which the badger is able to take and keep.

Even to-day there might be legitimate and illegitimate methods of badger baitingonly the former is never practised. For instance, but few terriers could "draw" a badger from a properly constructed badgerbox. In this case the conditions would be something like equal. In the old badger [NILGAI baiting, however, the badger was often halfstarved and maimed; the conditions under which the drawing was practised did not give it a chance, and after being placed in a tub, every dog in the neighbourhood was "tried" upon it. The poor imprisoned brute generally managed to leave its mark upon each of the snarling crew, and often had to be knocked on the head in the end.

Public-houses in town and country were generally the scene of these barbarisms, and the week-end the chosen time for the ،، sport." The sickening scenes which were the sequels to these encounters did much to form public opinion against them, and in time the brutal exhibitions were proscribed. Subsequently the number of badgers rapidly declined, but now, thanks to the intervention of several landowners and country gentlemen, the species is again establishing a fairly firm footing. The badger is a harmless, unoffending creature, extremely interesting to watch and study, and long may it survive in the peace to which it is entitled.

J. W. a BEAR AND BULL-BAITING. It is not impossible that the chief performers in certain sports that rank as obsolete, such as badger-baiting and cock-fighting, might, if cross-examined under promise of indemnity, confess to some practical experience even now of pits and mains, of badgerbones and stakes; but the glories of bear and bull-baiting have now absolutely passed, without a possibility of return, in spite of the impassioned defence of certain military member of the House of Commons which discussed the matter in 1809. He stoutly upheld the latter manly exercise as a prime cause of the growth of our population and a most necessary foundation of our militant spirit. Such an argument carried conviction to the mind of the House, and the Bill for the suppression of bull-baiting was thrown out by seventythree votes to twenty-eight, and the militant spirit was saved for the moment.

The Reformed House, however, put a stop to the custom in 1835, to the intense disgust of the few faithful adherents, who frequently, as at Wokingham, were by no means satisfied by the mere present of beef which it had been hoped would be found full recompense for the loss of their sport.

As to the origin of the amusements, bearbaiting seems to have needed no other motive than ordinary cruelty, and the invariable desire on the part of the owner of a good dog to try its mettle to the full; but bull-baiting had excellent medical excuse.

OBSOLETE SPORT] Bull's blood, as the ancients knew, was a swift and deadly poison; bull-beef, as Thomas Muffett explained (Health's Improvement, 1655), "unless it be very young, is utterly unwholesome and hard of digestion, yea, almost invincible. Of how hard and binding a nature bull's blood is may appear by the place where they are killed: for it glazeth the ground, and maketh it of a stony hardness. To prevent which corrupt flesh killed within borough and towns, sayeth and presenteth upon his said oath that John Hingston, butcher there, upon Friday, being the fourteenth day of this instant month (August), did kill a bull unbaited, and did put the flesh thereof unto sale, and thereupon he is emerced by Mr.

Mayor at iijs. iijd." Twenty-eight years later another Hingston, Justinian, was fined for the same offence.

After H. Alken.] BADGER DRAWING. mischief either bulls in old time were torn by lions, or hunted by men, or baited by dogs, as we use them: to the intent that violent heat and motion might attenuate their blood, resolve their hardness, and make the flesh softer in digestion. Bull's flesh being thus prepared, strong stomachs may receive some good thereby, though to weak, yea, to temperate stomachs, it will prove hurtful." ،، The local authorities were much occupied in carrying out this regulation. At Leicester, "on Thursday before St. Simon and St. Jude," an order was made at a Common Hall that no butcher kill a bull till baited." At Southampton it was part of the mayor's duty to see that plenty of bulls were provided for baiting, and at Weymouth, in 1618, one Edward Hardy, butcher, one of the searchers sworn and appointed for the viewing and searching of [By courtesy of Messrs. Robson and Co.

Fitzstephen, in his well-known description of London about 1174, describes the amusements of the populace. It may be as well to give the original, for the translation is no way overcertain-" In hieme singulis fere festis ante prandium, vel apri spumantes pugnant pro capitibus et verres fulmineis accinctis dentibus addendi succidiae vel pingues tauri cornupetæ, seu ursi immanes, cum objectis denugnant canibus." Bear-baiting appears always to have been an expensive amusement, and, therefore, was chiefly kept up by the Court, the royal bears giving displays from time to time during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The London Bear Garden itself, situated in Southwark, was coupled by Sir Walter Ralegh with Westminster Abbey as one of the national sights to be shown to foreign visitors.

From 1550 to about 1680 seems to have been the palmy time of the sport, and Philip Stubbs, in his Anatomy of Abuses (1583), rails fiercely against it. "Is not the baiting of a bear, besides that it is a filthy, stinking, and loathsome game, a dangerous and perilous exercise? Wherein a man is in danger of his life every minute of an hour, which thing, though it were not so, yet what exercise is that for any Christian?

What Christian heart can take pleasure to see one poor beast to rend and tear and kill another, and all for his foolish pleasure."

It would seem that Philip somewhat exaggerated the danger, for the spectator, unless he were one of the enthusiastic owners who would rush in to rescue the dogs when they were in difficulties, would seem to have been as safe as the supporter of a modern bull-fight.

Again he denounces the bear-baiters- "And some, who take themselves for no small fools, are so far assotted that they will not stick to keep a dozen or a score of great mastives and bandogs to their no small charges, for the maintenance of this goodly game, (forsooth,) and will not make any bones of XX, XL, C, pound at once to hazard at a bait with fight dog, fight bear,' (say they,) 'the devil part all. And to be plain, I think the devil is the master of the game, bearward and all."

Of course the sport was by no means confined to the rich, and one poet describes in rather hobbling verse the enthusiasm of the commons- "And yet every Sunday They will surely spend One penny or two The bearward's living to mend.

At Paris Garden each Sunday A man shall not fail To find two or three hundreds For the bearward's vail.

One halfpenny a piece They use for to give, When some have no more In their purse, I believe."

As to the dogs, we are told that "the force which is in them surmounteth all belief, and the fast hold which they take with their teeth exceedeth all credit: for three of them against a bear, four against a lion, are sufficient to try masteries with them." Mention is made of an English mastiff in France who pulled down successively a bear, a pard, and a lion in one day before the French king; but this record lacks detailed confirmation.

The passion of bear-baiting grew so fast that the Court of Aldermen of the City of London, in a reply to the Council in 1583, assigned the general desire for it as the [OBSOLETE SPORT prime cause for the neglect of archery, and deplored that even "the recent judgment in Paris Gardens," whereby seven or eight lives had been lost, had failed to check the popular liking. This judgment, on Sunday, January 13th, 1583, was caused by the collapse of a gallery when overcrowded, and gave emphasis to the denunciations of Stubbs and his sympathisers, and recalls Sir Thomas More's anecdote of what befell at Beverley, "when, much of the people being at a bear-beating, the church fell suddenly down at Evensong time and overwhelmed some that were in it. A good fellow that after heard the tale told, Ho,' quoth he, now may you see what it is to be at Evensong when ye should be at the bear-baiting.' Howbeit the hurt was not in being at Evensong, but that the church was falsely wrought." 6 During the next century there was a steady opposition on the part of the Puritans to the whole practice of bear-baiting. It is to be hoped that the historian sacrifices strict truth to antithesis when he declared that they hated it, not because it gave pain to the bear, but because it gave pleasure to the spectators; but it must be confessed that the sport was usually stopped by the short and easy method of shooting the bears.

The Restoration naturally saw an enthusiastic revival. Pepys recounts his evening with his wife at the Bear Garden, and Evelyn was disgusted by the baiting of a gallant horse, upon which no dog could fasten till the assistants ran him through with their swords. On this occasion, however, even hardened baiters felt excuse to be necessary, and they therefore pretended that the horse had killed a child, "which was false." some Suspended during the Plague, and deprived of Court patronage after the Revolution, bear-baiting sank out of fashion. It cannot be denied, however, that the public was loath to let it go, and the Paris Garden was from this period eclipsed in celebrity by the "New Bear Garden" at Hockley in the Hole, a part of Clerkenwell.

At this spot bear-baiting was still kept up, but was no longer the chief feature.

From an advertisement in 1709 we learn that, with other diversions, "there are two dogs to jump three jumps at the bear, which jumps highest, for ten shillings to be spent."

Bears seem to have grown too valuable by this time to be baited to death, and the chief events of a Hockley entertainment were "trials of skill between masters of the noble science of self-defence.” It is interesting to note the following advertisement in OBSOLETE SPORT] 1716:-" At the request of several persons of quality, on Monday the 11th of this instant of June, is one of the largest and most mischievous bears that ever was seen in England, to be baited to death, with other variety of bull-baiting and bear-baiting; as also a wild bull to be turned loose in the game place, with fireworks all over him."

Efforts were made in 1724 to suppress the sport altogether; but they do not seem to medical authority, and, which one may hope was the chief factor, the bull had a fair sporting chance of getting on even terms with his persecutors. Beyond question, he would have done ill to exchange his chance with the trapped pigeon or the enclosed rabbit of to-day. The bull could put down as paid not a few of his tormentors, including an enthusiastic publican of Stamford, who was driven into the river, when BEAR-BAITING. have been wholly successful, for in 1730 the following advertisement was issued on behalf of His Majesty's Bear Garden :- "A mad bull to be dress'd up with fireworks and turned loose in the game place. Likewise a dog to be dress'd up with fireworks over him, and turned loose with the bull amongst the men in the ground. Also a bear to be turn'd loose at the same time; and a cat to be ty'd to the bull's tail. "Note: The doors will be opened at four and the sport begin at five exactly, because the diversion will last long, and the days grow short."

The expense of the amusement and the growing sense of its brutality had done the work required before the eighteenth century was half completed, so far as the bear was concerned, but the bull was in a worse plight. The sport, for one thing, was cheaper, it improved the quality of the beef, as men were informed on the highest [After H. Alken. heated with liquor and the chase, and expired forthwith from apoplexy. It is well to distinguish between the bullrunning and the bull-baiting proper, of which the former was seen in its greatest perfection at Tutbury in Staffordshire and at Stamford.

The traditional origin at Stamford was a chance fight between two bulls in a meadow by the town. A dog interfered in the fight and drove one of the bulls into the town, where it was promptly beset by all the other dogs, and "became so stark mad that it ran over man, woman, and child that stood in its way." The lord of the town, William, Earl of Warenne, was attracted by the tumult, and it appealed so keenly to his sense of humour that he bestowed the meadows in which the quarrel started upon the butchers of the town, upon condition that they should provide a mad bull for the continuance of that sport, every year on the day or week before Christmas.

The bull was always stabled overnight in an alderman's outhouse, and for the next day all shops were closed, all business suspended. The only rule of the game seems to have been that there must be no iron on the bull-clubs. The bull was turned out, and then, in Butcher's picturesque style, "hivie, shivie, tag and rag, men, women, and children of all sorts and sizes, with all the dogs in the town, promiscuously run after him, with their bull-clubs scattering dirt in each other's faces, as when Theseus and Pirithous conquered Hell and punished Cerberus. 'A ragged troupe of boys and girls doe follow him with stones; With clubs and whips, and many nips, they part his skin from bones.' And (which is the greater shame) I have seen both senatores majorum gentium et matrones (sic) de eodem gradu, following this bulling busi- دو ness."

The bull running at Tutbury was also not without its smack of quaint ceremony.

Blount describes it in the Tenures of Land and Customs of Manors as follows:- "After dinner all the minstrels repair to the Priory Gate in Tutbury, without any manner of weapons, attending the turning out of the bull, which the bailiff of the Manor is obliged to provide, and is there to have the tips of his horns sawed off, his ears and tail cut off, his body smeared all over with soap, and his nose blown full of beaten pepper. Then the steward causes proclamation to be made that all manner of persons except minstrels shall give way to the bull, and not come within forty feet of him, at their own peril, nor hinder the minstrels in their pursuit of him; after which proclamation the Prior's bailiff turns out the bull among the minstrels, and if any of them can cut off a piece of his skin before he runs into Derbyshire, then he is the King of Music's bull, but if the bull gets into Derbyshire sound and uncut, he is the Lord Prior's again. If the bull be taken and a piece of him cut off, then he is brought to the bailiff's house, and there collared and roped, and so brought to the bull-ring, in the High Street at Tutbury, and there baited with dogs; the first course, in honour of the King of Music; the second, in honour of the Prior; the third for the town, and if more, for the divertisement of the spectators, and after he is baited, the King may dispose of him as he pleases.

This usage is of late perverted; the young men of Stafford and Derbyshire contend with cudgels about a yard long, the one party to drive the bull into Derbyshire, the [OBSOLETE SPORT other to keep him in Staffordshire, in which contest many heads are often broken. The King of Music and the bailiff have also of late compounded, the bailiff giving the king five nobles (£1 13s. 4d.) in lieu of his right to the bull, and then sends him to the Duke of Devonshire's manor at Hardwicke, to be fed and given to the poor at Christmas."

The Duke of Devonshire in 1778 abolished the whole ceremony "respecting rather civility than antiquity."

The modus operandi of ordinary bull baiting was thus described by John Houghton in 1694:- "I'll say something of baiting the bull; which is by having a collar above his neck, fastened to a thick rope about three, four, or five yards long, hung to a hook so fastened to a stake that it will turn round; with this the bull circulates to watch his enemy, which is a mastiff dog (commonly used to the sport) with a short nose, that his teeth may take the better hold.

This dog, if right, will creep upon his belly that he may, if possible, get the bull by the nose, which the bull carefully tries to defend by laying it close to the ground, where his horns are also ready to do what in them lies to toss this dog; and this is true sport.

But if more dogs than one come at once or they are cowardly and come under his legs, he will, if he can, stamp their guts out."

According to a contributor to Notes and Queries, the custom was for owners of dogs who wished to bait the bull to pay one shilling each entrance fee, and if the dog pinned the bull, they received five shillings. “ دو As mentioned at the beginning of the article, bull-baiting lasted well into this century. The abandonment of Queen Caroline's trial was celebrated by a baiting at Aylesbury in 1820, and the jubilee of George III. in 1809 by a like performance at Windsor, and so late as 1828 there was a baiting at Oakley, for which the bull was dosed with beer and gin "to promote a little excitement in him."

Wokingham had always been proud of its bull-ring, and great resentment was felt when the Corporation suppressed the practice in 1822. Two bulls per annum had been bequeathed from 1661 to the populace by one George Staverton to be first baited and then distributed. The authorities decided to kill the beasts mercifully; but the poor resented deeply the loss of the sport. For several years they carried out informal baitings, breaking into the yard where the bulls were penned before the killing and dragging them off to the bull- OBSOLETE SPORT] ring. Actually as late as 1835, the year of the definite legal suppression of baiting, they broke into the place where one of the bulls was kept and baited him in the marketplace. It is said that an enthusiastic amateur, lying on the ground, actually seized the poor brute by the nostril with his teeth! A sharp sentence of imprisonment on the ringleaders ended the sport as far as Wokingham was concerned, and though sporadic cases occurred for another year or two, by 1840 tethered baiting could fairly claim to rank as an obsolete sport.

COCKFIGHTING. - History. For centuries this was the national sport of the British peoples, and certainly so from the reign of Henry II. to the end of the Great French Wars: a period contemporary with the rise of England to pride of place among the nations. It is significant that during the various periods when Britain made herself most signally felt as a military and naval Power, cockfighting was ever at its best; and there can be little doubt-as the Athenians under Themistocles had found in their day that the example offered in the After H. Alken.] BULL-RUNNING.

The Stamford bull running also came to an end in that year, after a very animated fight for existence in the face, not only of local, but of national, authority. Lord John Russell as Home Secretary, a regiment of dragoons, and hundreds of special constables all took part in the efforts to stop it, but for five years local ingenuity managed to smuggle one or more bulls into the town and to let them loose in the streets. Legal penalties failed to secure their object, but on November 3rd, 1840, the inhabitants of Stamford held a public meeting and decided that the enormous expense of their military garrison and of special constables obliged them to abandon their ancient custom. All that now remains of it is the bull-song, which for some time might be heard in the streets or in the theatre on great occasions, and may be heard even now.

C. S. COLMAN. [By courtesy of Messrs. Robson and C cockpits of our men-of-war (which always carried a team of game-cocks aboard as the only means of providing sport for their officers and men) contributed not a little to our great naval victories. Admiral Boscawen was a great breeder of fighting-cocks, and never sailed without his pens being full of birds; and the sea-fights of the days before steam and "ironclads" resembled so closely a main of cocks, when frigate engaged frigate, or when the ships of the line engaged each other in a species of "battleroyal," that, could the modern "descriptive reporter" have been present, he could have given no truer account of Trafalgar, for instance, than to have described it in terms of the Sod. On land, too, cockfighting was the principal amusement of the victorious British armies; and our most skilful commanders, down to the days of Sir H. Vivian, who led the final charge at Waterloo; Lord Clive, and General Sir Walter Raleigh Gilbert, the conqueror of the Sikhs at Sobraon, Chillianwalla, and Attock, were the keenest patrons of the cockpit. In this they but followed the example of Julius Cæsar, and of Gustavus Adolphus, one of the greatest cockfighters, as he was one of the greatest soldiers, of his age. Indeed, he made cockfighting one of the chief elements in the military training of his armies.

The history of cockfighting goes back to some 2,000 years B.C., and the existence of the enormous open-air cockpits found at Gwennap and elsewhere in Cornwall, and undoubtedly constructed in præ-Roman days, shows that the sport was pre-eminent among the Celtic conquerors of aboriginal Britain. That it was enormously popular among all classes of the community, from princes, prelates, peers, and parsons to penmen, painters, and pitmen, is shown by the large number of words and phrases incorporated into the English language which owe their origin to the sport of the Sod, such as to "live like a fighting cock," to "beat cockfighting," to "die game," "to stand steel," "to show the white feather," and "to turn tail," to name none other.

The Law as to the Sport. - Cockfighting is generally, but erroneously, supposed to have been made illegal in the British Isles by the Act of William IV. c. lix. (1835), which merely prohibited the keeping of a cockpit within five miles of Temple Bar under a £5 penalty to the "keeper," but none to the frequenters. The reason adduced for this enactment was that the cockpits were great nuisances and annoyances to the neighbourhood in which they were situated, and tended to demoralise those who frequented them: a reason that might as easily be made applicable to certain modern football grounds. The only other enactment of the legislature that applies to the sport is Victoria c. xcii. (1849), known as the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, which extends the prohibition as to keeping a public cockpit to the whole of the country, the "keeper" again being only liable to a £5 penalty. ..

In the two appealed cases that interpret these statutes it was laid down, firstly, that "it is no offence. to assist at a cockfight unless in a place kept or used for the purpose" (conviction quashed); and, secondly, that "a person who takes part in a cockfight after one or both is disabled" is liable to conviction for cruelty to animals (fine of 5s. confirmed). The moral of these rulings is sufficiently obvious to modern cockers if they would not be harassed by police interference. As matter of fact, cocking is in no sense of the a [OBSOLETE SPORT word "obsolete" (or per se illegal) either in the British Isles or in other parts of the civilised world. Indeed, in most countries it is fostered and encouraged.

Breeds and Colours of Cocks. There are many breeds and colours of gamecocks, some of them taking their names from famous cockers of the past, as the black cocks of Lord Vere, the Derby blackbreasted reds, with daw eyes and white legs; the Mansell pyles, and so forth. At the present day the breeds may be enlisted as :- Reds (including black-breasted dark reds, crow-wings, and brown-breasted brown reds).

Greys (including duck-wings and birchens).

Pyles (of various sorts).

Duns (including blues and blue-reds).

Blacks (including charcoal-blacks, brassywings, and furnaces). Whites (including spangles, cuckoos, and creels).

With Henny, muffed, and tasselled game of various breeds.

The hens for the first breed are known as light and dark partridge, and clay or wheaten. Modern breeders for the pit (as opposed to the show pen) have each their own breeding secrets; but the chief policy to be pursued if success be desired is that of in-and-in breeding, coupled with the principal of "youth to youth at proper intervals of time." By its observance alone can a good fighting strain be maintained in its purity over a long series of years. An out-cross in pit-game breeding should not be sought more than once in twenty years.

The Cockpit. This may be covered or open to the air. If the former it should be high, windowless, and lighted from a glass dome. The pit itself should be 18 or 20 feet in diameter, and either circular or octagonal in shape. The sides from 18 to 24 inches in height, padded with chopped hay, and covered with canvas. The floor should be sodded with fine turf, or may be covered with carpet or matting of a sort in which the birds' spurs cannot easily catch. The centre of the floor should be marked with a X, and lines should be drawn 12 inches on each side of the centre for the convenience of the settors. Implements of the Sport. The principal of these are the artificial spurs, employed in order to prevent the birds from tearing each other with their natural spurs (which are removed), and to bring a battle to a decisive and prompt conclusion. Silver spurs are still used by those fortunate enough to possess them; but the art of making silver spurs, as practised by the OBSOLETE SPORT] Clays, Gregory, T. Smith, Gatesfield, Green,