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in 1835. He was first employed at a gun factory in Alsace, and at an early age developed his fondness for mechanics. Subsequently, he came to England, and was employed at some steam locomotive works at Manchester, where he studied engineering. On his return to Germany he assisted Dr. Otto, the engineer, in the construction of the gas engine which bears his name, and whose inventive genius is recognised by the mechanical term, "Otto Cycle." In 1872 Herr Langen, a German Privy Councillor, financed Dr. Otto and Herr Daimler, and started them in engineering works at Dentz. In 1882 Daimler left the partnership and devoted himself to experiments at Cannstatt, and to the invention of a high-speed gas-engine. The first motor produced in 1883 was of a horizontal, not a vertical, type, as later on, and is described in the patents as follows: "The ignition is produced by a red-hot tube, which is found at the end of the compression chamber.

The motor continues to work even after the tube is allowed to cool on account of the high temperature of the cylinder walls."

It was while making his secret experiments with the motor engine that Herr Daimler was suspected by his neighbours of being a counterfeit coiner, and he narrowly escaped trouble at the hands of the ignorant but inquisitive police. Two years later, in 1885, the first light internal combustion motor engine was produced, and Herr Daimler now began to turn his attention to its appliance to road vehicles, and had one fitted to a tricycle. At about the same time Herr Karl Benz, of Mannheim, in Germany, and a Mr. E. Butler, in England, also produced OL-CYCH 1889. EDWARD BUTLER ON HIS MOTOR TRICYCLE.

Taken at Erith, May, 1889. Six months after, all further development of this little "petrol" motor was abandoned. The first made in this country. Working drawings shown at "Inventions Exhibition," London, 1885, with description. a somewhat similar type of engine, and at an exhibition held at Earl's Court in London in 1885 Daimler and Benz showed their internal combustion engines. Butler, being an Englishman, did not meet with the same measure of encouragement or success as did his foreign contemporaries, for the English authorities characteristically refused him permission to run his motor-fitted tricycle on the road even experimentally.

In 1886 Daimler fitted one of his motors, on which he had made various improvements, and which now had an arrangement for throwing the propelling machinery in and out of gear, to a four-wheeled wagona [AUTOMOBILES ette, which may be looked upon as the first motor-car as distinct from motor tricycles.

In 1887 M. Sazarin, a Frenchman, acquired the Daimler patents for France, and began to make experiments with the motor, and manufacture at the workshops of MM. Perrin, Panhard & Cie. It was here that M. Emile Levassor was employed, and on the death of Sazarin he married his widow and gained with his wife the right to use in France the famous Daimler patents. Karl Benz, in the same year (1888), brought out a two-seated threewheeled carriage, which travelled at a speed of 15 miles per hour, and which, in common with his earlier efforts, had a horizontal cylinder fitted with a water-jacket. In the same year Leon Serpollet, in France, put on the road both a steam tricycle and a small four-seated steam car. Steam tricycles produced by the Marquis De Dion, a leading French enthusiast, whose subsequent success in producing good but cheap small motor-cars is well known, and by MM. Bouton and Trepardoux, were also seen in 1888. It was also in this year that John Dunlop patented his pneumatic tyre, which, though fitted to bicycles in the first place, was soon taken up by the early French pioneers for their motor vehicles.

The first French Daimler engine was produced at the Panhard works in 1889, and in the same year Gottlieb Daimler patented his two-cylinder V-type engine; this engine was afterwards fitted to a boat and exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1889. Two of the early motor engines made at the Panhard works were delivered to MM.

Peugeot, who subsequently became connected with the industry themselves. Serpollet in the following year (1889) produced his first flash boiler, and now began a period of useful experiments on the part of many of the leading French pioneers and makers. MM. Panhard, Levassor, Bouton, Peugeot, Bollée, De Dion, and Serpollet were all tireless in their efforts to produce a satisfactory engine for mechanical propulsion on the road. Two years later Panhard completed his first petrol car, and M. Peugeot, on a vehicle fitted with a French Daimler engine, ran from Paris to Brest without any serious mechanical trouble.

In England, Edward Butler had been working at, and had improved, his petrol engine. He completed his motor tricycle, which attracted some attention amongst engineers, in 1892. Next year (1893) Maybach invented the float feed carburetter, which was soon extensively adopted by the early manufacturers. It was in 1894 that the founder of the French paper Le Petit AUTOMOBILES] Journal, M. Pierre Giffard, began to organise trials and tests with a view to encourage the French manufacturers, and also to promote public interest in the new invention. The first road race took place in July, 1894, and was run from Paris to Rouen, a distance of nearly 80 miles.

Twenty-six vehicles participated in this run, the start being watched by huge crowds at the "Rond Point." The following list will be interesting, as showing the competing cars which finished the first road race of its kind, together with the times taken on the route :a De Dion (steam)...

Peugeot (petrol) joined forces) built 90 vehicles, and constructed 350 motors for various purposes. a In England in the same year (1894) Mr.

John Henry Knight built his first motor vehicle in July, and Mr. H. Hewetson, in Benz car, which was August, ordered delivered in the following November. In the latter part of the year Mr. J. A. Koosen brought the first Lutzmann car to England.

It was in the following year that Mr.

Hewetson began to drive his small Benz car through the London streets, and was eventually cautioned by the police authori- ... ... ... ... ... 5 hrs. 5 40 mins. ... وو دو 5 Panhard & Levassor (petrol) 6 Peugeot (petrol) 6 ... ...

Le Brun 6 ... وو Panhard & Levassor (petrol) 6 De Bourmont (petrol) Peugeot (petrol) ... ... 7 7 Vacheron (gasoline) .. ... 7 Peugeot وو 7 5 " 5 " دو 6 " 6 " وو 7 " دو 7 " وو 45 50 3 7 24 30 I 2 3 5 Panhard & Levassor (petrol) 7,, IO Roger (petrol) 8 ... ... ...

Le Blanc (steam) 8 ... ... 8 " 8 " 9 50 وو دو 3 " 7 " دو وو وو 2 " دو 5 " دو دو وو The winners thus averaged just over 14 miles an hour.

The first prize, 5,000 francs, which was presented by Le Petit Journal, was divided between Panhard & Levassor and the Peugeot Brothers. The second prize was secured by the Marquis de Dion, who had now entered the trade as De Dion, Bouton & Cie. An electric car had also been entered for this road contest by the Comte Carle, but was detained by the Customs authorities for eight days for investigation, and consequently was unable to run. The French pioneers, after this successful run, decided in November to hold a meeting to discuss further tests, and at this meeting, which might be called the first congress on automobilism, were present many Frenchmen whose names have now become famous in the motor world: The Baron de Zuylen, the Marquis de Dion, the Marquis de Chasseloup Laubat, MM. Ganthier, Ravenez, Peugeot Frères, Levassor, Dufayel, Serpollet, Lavalette, Roger, Recoupe, Menier, Giffard, de Place, Meillan, Nansouty, and Moreau. At the meeting was organised a big race for the following year, a subscription list was started, and 100,000 francs (£4,000) was subscribed. The route chosen was from Paris to Bordeaux, 723 miles, a severe test in those early days.

After the Paris-Rouen race the manufacturers started to construct quite a number of vehicles; one firm, that of Panhard & Levassor (the two early pioneers had now !

THE FIRST PETROL MOTOR CAR INTRODUCED INTO ENGLAND (FITTED WITH ELECTRIC IGNITION). DRIVEN BY MR. HENRY HEWETSON IN 1894. ties not to repeat the offence, whereupon he naturally removed the car to Ireland, where the police had plenty of other and more important matters to attend to. The Hon. Evelyn Ellis brought the first Daimler car into England in June, 1895. The same month also saw the Paris-Bordeaux race on the Continent, which did a great deal to stimulate public interest in the new method of locomotion. The winning car was a 4-h.p. Panhard, which carried two passengers, and completed the distance (732 miles) in 48 hrs. 47 mins. It was in 1895 that Mr. Shaw Lefevre (now Lord Eversley), who was then President of the Local Government Board, brought forward the Light Locomotives Act in England, but this was not carried through, owing to a General Election and change of Government. Sir David Salomons, another English enthusiast, and one who has done much for the development of automobilism, organised in October an exhibition of motor vehicles at Tunbridge Wells in connection with the Agricultural Show at that town.

K The exhibits consisted of Sir David Salomons's own car, a 3/4-h.p. Peugeot, fitted with a French Daimler engine; the Hon. Evelyn Ellis's Panhard carriage, Daimler type; a De Dion steam tractor 1895. 4-H.P. PHOENIX.

T WINNER OF PARIS-BORDEAUX RACE. a attached to a landau; and a De Dion Bouton motor tricycle with a petrol engine and electric ignition, which invention was a great advance on the tube ignition, till then universally adopted. Following on this exhibition Sir David Salomons suggested the formation of a body to deal with the subject of mechanical locomotion, and a few months after was formed the Self- Propelled Traffic Association, which had its home in Liverpool.

France had already a paper, La Locomotion Automobile, devoted to the interests of mechanical locomotion, and November saw the publication of England's first journal dealing with the subject, The Autocar. The Automobile Club of France was established in the latter part of the year, while in England various petitions were placed before the Government of the day to remove the existing ridiculous restrictions on the use of mechanical vehicles. 1896 was an eventful year all round for automobilism, and was a landmark in its progress here. Great strides were made in France, the newly-formed Automobile Club gaining many distinguished and enthusiastic members, while in England in January the Engineer and The Autocar organised a petition to Parliament to allow light locomotives (as motor vehicles were then called) to run on the roads. In February, through the instrumentality of Sir David Salomons, a deputation waited on the Local Government Board, and in March, Lord Harris, on behalf of that deputation, brought before the House of Lords measure, called the Light Locomotives Bill, which passed its second reading in April.

In June Mr. Henry Chaplin, the President of the Local Government Board, and a a [AUTOMOBILES member of the Cabinet, moved and carried the second reading in the House of Commons. Mr. Frederick Simms, in the earlier part of the year, formed the Motor Car Club, and arranged for a demonstration in the summer at the Imperial Institute, which was attended by many M.P.'s and members of the House of Lords. Amongst the exhibits were seen the following: The Hon. Evelyn Ellis's Panhard car; a Benz car; Orrord & Son's electric carriage; Mr.

Walter Bersey's electric phaeton; Messrs.

New & Mayne's petrol cycle; Messrs.

Humber's motor cycle fitted with a Kane- Pennington petrol motor; a Serpollet steam carriage; a De Dion tricycle and bicycle; while M. Leon Bollee also brought over his petroleum-actuated tricycle, and the newly formed British Daimler Co. showed Peugeot 'bus, two Victorias, a Peugeot visà-vis, and several 4-h.p. motors. a Even before Parliament had finally sanctioned the Light Locomotives Act, and while the matter was still under discussion, automobilism, which had received so many legislative drawbacks in its already short life, encountered great disaster. Highly imaginative prospectuses were placed before of enthusiasm some two or three million the public at this stage, and in the first flush pounds were put up by the unsuspecting a 1896. EARLY 6-H.P. DAIMLER CAR. investors and lost. The scandal attending the promotion of the Horseless Carriage Co. especially was a severe set-back to the infant days of the movement, and made the obtaining of capital very difficult for motorcar purposes for some years afterwards. meanwhile passed through Parliament and The Light Locomotives Act (1896) came into force on November 14th, on AUTOMOBILES] which day a demonstration was organised to celebrate the emancipation of the horseless vehicle. This demonstration took the form of a run from London to Brighton.

No attempt at fast running was made, and huge crowds lined the route to Brighton to witness this memorable sight. Herr Gottlieb Daimler was present on this occasion, and most of the men of note in the then small world of automobilism took part in the proceedings. Lord Winchilsea, in a banquet which followed the journey, implored the public not to be too vehicle was fixed by the Act not to exceed four tons unladen.

In September the Paris-Marseilles Race aroused much enthusiasm in France. This was the first race run in stages, official timekeepers or umpires of the Automobile Club of France being carried on competing vehicles. The race began from Versailles, and 32 vehicles started, 24 being driven by petroleum spirit, 3 by steam, while 5 were motor-tricycles. M. Bollee, on a motortricycle, covered the first day's stage at an average speed of 20 miles an hour, the best 1896. PEUGEOT, DRIVEN BY THE HON. C. S. ROLLS ON ENGLISH ROADS BEFORE THE REPEAL OF THE "RED FLAG AcT." hasty in forming a judgment as to the capabilities of the mechanically driven vehicles, but to wait awhile and see to what purpose it would serve them.

The Light Locomotives Act, though its conditions appear childish to the automobilists of to-day, was the first charter of liberty and freed motorists from the "red flag man." The maximum speed allowed was 14 miles an hour, with power to the Local Government Board to reduce it. Taking advantage of this provision, the maximum was fixed at 12 miles an hour, a figure which remained till January 1st, 1904.

The chief features of the Act which was passed on August 14th, 1896, may be summed up as follows: Permission for light locomotives that is, vehicles propelled by mechanical propulsion to use the roads of this country at a restricted speed. The regulations as to lights, warning bells, wheels, &c., were left to the Local Government Board to frame. The weight of any performance which had been recorded by a mechanically-propelled vehicle up to that date. The number of cars which travelled to Marseilles and back to Paris again was surprising, considering the distance, the rough state of many of the roads for vehicles so badly sprung, and the short time which had been given to the study of the petrol engine. The result of this run was as follows:- PARIS TO MARSEILLES-1,073 MILES.

Panhard & Levassor (M. Mayard) 67 hrs. 42 mins. (De Knyff) 68 II وو دو De Dion tricycle Panhard & Levassor (Levassor) De Dion tricycle Peugeot car Delahaye Peugeot ... ... ... ... ... .. ...

De Dion tricycle Delahaye Maison Parisienne وو دو Laudry & Beyroux ... ... ... 71 71 ... ... 73 ... 75 75 دو وو وو وو وو دو دو دو دو وو دو دو وو وو وو وو وو وو وو وو وو I 23 30 26 29 وو K 2 وو دو The winning Panhard car was afterwards purchased by the Hon. C. S. Rolls, the second son of Lord Llangattock, one of England's young pioneers; and the second vehicle was taken over by Mr. S. F. Edge and subsequently fitted with the first Napier engine. 1897. The feature of the following year was the formation of the Automobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland as a society for the encouragement and defence of automobilists. Though given the title of "Club," it is not with its social aspect that we shall deal, nor has this, indeed, at any time been an important feature, but rather we shall try to point out the way this body has defended the interests and encouraged the development of the movement as a whole.

France some two years before had given England the lead by organising a similar body for the encouragement of mechanicallypropelled vehicles across the Channel, and it was natural, therefore, that in August, 1897, 1897, Mr. Simms, who had already done much pioneer service, proposed the idea of a club on a larger scale than that of the already existing Motor Car Club, and was assisted in his idea by the Hon. Evelyn Ellis and Mr. C. Harrington Moore. Mr. Roger Wallace, K.C., whose authority on patent and engineering matters was well known, was invited to act as first chairman of the body, and in December Mr. Claud Johnson was selected as secretary. To those indefatigable workers in the early days we owe the sowing of the seed of development which is destined to affect all mankind and the fate of nations. It will not be out of place, and, indeed, it is only just, to mention the names of some of those gentlemen who came forward with financial assistance at a time when those who believed in the future of automobilism were derided by public opinion as enthusiasts and dreamers.

Mr. F. R. Simms placed a sum of £800 at the disposal of the Club, followed by the following gentlemen, who guaranteed a sufficient fund to start the Club: Messrs.

Roger Wallace, K.C.; Hon. Evelyn Ellis; Sir David Salomons (who had been actively instrumental in organising the Self-Propelled Traffic Association, which was afterwards incorporated in the Club); Messrs. H. E. Sherwin Holt, Frank H. Butler, Walter Bersey, Worby Beaumont, Sir Boverton Redwood, Messrs. Alex Siemens, S. F. Edge, John W. Parr, James McManus, Henry P. Holt, Wm. J. Leonard, E. L. England, Henry Sturmey, C.

Harrington Moore, T. W. Staplee Firth, H. Hewetson, J. J. Vickers, Stanley [AUTOMOBILES Spooner, Sir Hiram Maxim, and some 18 or 19 others. Premises were taken at 4 Whitehall Court, premises which in these days would hardly hold the Club's working staff, to say nothing of its members, which at the end of this year, 1897, numbered 163.

Mr. Simms subsequently increased his loan to £1,000, and the membership began to grow with the beginning of the following year, among those who joined being the Hon. J. Scott Montagu (now Lord 1897. 6-H.P. PANHARD. FIRST OF THE TYPE FITTED WITH WHEEL-STEERING.

Montagu), who formed the first Parliamentary Party a few years later. In June, 1899, the Club organised a show of motor vehicles in the Deer Park at Richmond, attracting a great deal of public interest, and gaining further converts; and a guarantee fund, in order to assist the Club to hold the exhibition, received a grant of £100, contributed by Mr. Alfred Harmsworth, now Lord Northcliffe, the proprietor of the Daily Mail and many other periodicals.

When the original guarantee fund expired in the following year (1900), the original guarantors again renewed their responsibilities. Sir David Salomons, Lord Northcliffe, Mr.

Charles Cordingley, Mr. Paris Singer, and Mr. Mark Mayhew came to the assistance of the Club by providing working capital, and Mr. Simms was repaid his original loan.

To proceed with the history of the movement, we will deal with the events of 1898 and 1899. It will interest motorists to-day to know that in the August of 1897 Mr.

Cordingley, in his Laundry Exhibition at the Agricultural Hall, included a display of motor vehicles, and this "side" show consisted of 12 vehicles. Compared with the recent Olympia shows of 1907 and 1908, it is, indeed, wonderful to observe what gigantic strides have been made from the time when motor vehicles formed an insignificant annexe to an exhibition for laundry AUTOMOBILES] appliances to the modern crowded shows which receive wide-world attention, and were visited in 1908 and 1909 by 112,324 and 115,000 people respectively. 1898 saw the racing tendency accentuated in France. The Paris-Amsterdam Race 1898. 8-H.P. IN PARIS-AMSTERDAM RACE. took place in July, in which event wheelsteering and a four-cylinder balance engine were first used on the Panhard cars, while M. Charon, on an 8-h.p. Panhard car, covered the 938 miles in 33 hrs. 4 mins., an average speed of about 28½ miles an hour, a very fast speed considering the low horse-power used. In the Bordeaux-Paris Race, which followed, the Chevalier Réné de Knyff drove a 6-h.p. Panhard to victory, accomplishing the 351 miles in 15 hrs. 15 mins., an average of over 23 miles an hour.

In England a Heavy Vehicle Trial was held at Liverpool, which interested many commercial firms, who began to see the benefit they would derive from the new form of locomotion. It was in 1898 also that the late King, then Prince of Wales, gave evidence of his interest in the development of the motor-car by being a passenger in a 6-h.p. Daimler, driven by Mr. Critchley, the then manager of the Daimler works. 1899.-In 1899 there came into being many new types of cars, and several engineers and former cycle enthusiasts now began to turn their attention to the motor vehicle. The Automobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland was steadily increasing in membership, and taking an active part both in the development of the industry and in the organisation of motorists for mutual defence. In addition to the Richmond Show, an exhibition was organised at Dover, and in the latter part of the year the Club took over the control and management of all motor competitions and races. Two Continental events in this year did much to bring before the public of more than one country the possibilities of a practical future for mechanical locomotion. These two events were the Tour de France and the Paris-Ostend Race. The former contest was organised by the French journal Le Matin, and the route traversed was some 1,380 miles in length, extending over a period of seven days. The Panhard cars entered for this trying test came through satisfactorily, the 16-h.p. of that make doing remarkably well. The Chevalier Réné de Knyff, on a 16-h.p. Panhard, covered the total distance in 44 hrs. 42 mins., an average of about 31 miles an hour. In the same month Mr. James Gordon Bennett offered the Gordon Bennett Cup, a trophy for which many exciting contests took place in later years. The Paris-Ostend Race over a course of 201 miles witnessed the advent of many new makes of cars. M. Levegh, on a 16-h.p. Mors, and M. Giradot, on a 12-h.p. Panhard, tied in 6 hrs. II mins., a speed of about 33 miles an hour, while in the tourist section of this contest English competitors took the second and third prizes, the Hon. C. S. Rolls, on a Panhard, taking second place, and the Hon. J. Scott Montagu (Lord Montagu) winning the third place on a 12-h.p. Coventry-built Daimler, the first English-built car to race abroad, notwithstanding that, owing to a fractured water-pipe, he started 22 hours behind the first two prize-winners.

It was probably in this year and the following (1900) that France made the greater part of her headway in the motor 1899. 12-H.P. CAR. WINNER OF THE TOUR DE FRANCE. world, for while a few enthusiasts and engineers were working in England, the legal restriction of 12 miles an hour and the general lack of official and public encouragement held back all but a few venturesome spirits, and thus France was given a start which took Great Britain 6 or 7 years to recover. May, 1900, will be remembered by all the early pioneers, and will in future doubtless be mentioned by all the writers on automobilism as the "Year of the Thousand Miles Trial." Now, when the advance and development of the movement has become so certain as to be a commonplace, we motorists are apt to forget what an important part the Thousand Miles Trial played in laying the future foundations and forming the history of automobilism. This April 23rd.

London to Bristol [AUTOMOBILES miles. دو دو 24th.

Exhibition at Bristol. 25th.

Bristol to Birmingham (via Cheltenham.) دو وو دو 26th.

Exhibition at Birmingham. 27th.

Birmingham to Manchester ... ...

IIO 28th.

Exhibition at Manchester. ११ 3th.

Manchester to Kendal ... ... ...

May Ist.

Kendal to Carlisle ... ... 734 61 ... ... دو دو دو دو وو وو دو وو وو 2nd.

Carlisle to Edinburgh 100 ... ... ... 3rd.

Exhibition at Edinburgh 4th.

Edinburgh to Newcastle ... ... ... 121 5th.

Exhibition at Newcastle. 7th.

Newcastle to Leeds ... ... ... ... 103 8th.

Exhibition at Leeds. 9th.

Leeds to Sheffield ... ... ... ... 74 Ioth.

Exhibition at Sheffield. 11th.

Sheffield to Nottingham 82 ... ... ... (This day's programme included a speed contest on the Duke of Portland's estate at Welbeck.) دو ... ... ... 123 1900. 20-H.P. PANHARD. trial, which was to result in such a beneficial issue, was conceived chiefly as an educational factor for the public benefit, and originated entirely from the brain of the capable and able secretary of the Club at that time, Mr. Claud Johnson. It was cordially supported by the whole Club committee, who at that time were enthusiasts and practical men, and who realised themselves and wished the public also to realise, the importance to the country of helping a new engineering industry. It was also necessary to demonstrate that motor vehicles were neither toys nor freak vehicles, but a form of locomotion which was going to be intensely practical and utilitarian in character. When it is remembered that this trial was the first that had ever been originated on our roads, and that the public anticipated a crop of dreadful accidents, that the police and local bodies such as road authorities hated the very name of motor-car, that vehicles and owners alike were not even trusted for hotel bills in many places, that the Press in most instances poured ridicule fair and unfair on the scheme; then it will be realised, with perhaps some astonishment, what a stupendous undertaking was the organisation of such a trial. Mr. Claud Johnson, for the Thousand Miles Trial, if for nothing else, will always deserve the gratitude of motorists, past, present, and future. The following itinerary was spread over 18 days' travelling, including exhibition days at the chief towns, and in order to place on record the ground covered by this educational journey we give the dates and places :- 12th. Nottingham to London Sixty-five vehicles started out on the first morning from Whitehall, and only seventeen failed to complete the whole trial, a wonderful result at such an early stage in the automobile development. The performance of competing vehicles was such that the Press and public began seriously to consider the new form of locomotion, and a great amount of public attention was attracted, and thus the object of the Club Committee was gained. Those motor vehicles which achieved the long journey with credit to themselves and their drivers were discussed and made the subject of inquiry by many would-be buyers.

In the following month of June the first Gordon Bennett Race was run in France.

The route lay from Paris to Lyons, 35334 miles. France, Belgium, and America 1900. THE FIRST 12-H.P. PANHARD RUN IN ENGLAND-THE FIRST CAR FITTED WITH TUBE AND ELECTRIC IGNITION. pitted their cars against each other, the two latter countries being represented by one car only. The winner, M. Charron, covered the course at an average speed of 38.45 miles per hour. The two other French competitors were Giradot and the Chevalier AUTOMOBILES] Réné de Knyff. Jenatzy represented Belgium, and Mr. Winton, on a Winton car, drove for America, but gave up the race at Chevreuse owing to a broken wheel. In connection with the 1900 Paris Exhibition, a three days' race was held from Paris to Toulouse, and it was even more remarkable to note the excellent performance of the smaller cars of the voiturette type, and one, a 4-h.p. Renault, is recorded as having covered the Paris-Toulouse course at an average speed of 22 miles an hour. It should be mentioned that the death of Herr Gottlieb Daimler took place in 1900, but not before he had seen the immense future already opening out for mechanical vehicles to whose efficiency he had contributed so large a share.

Towards the latter part of 1900 the Automobile Club began to consider the means whereby it could best keep up the education of the authorities, and also meet the growing opposition from the public to the new form of locomotion, an opposition which was largely the result of ill-founded prejudice. In the early part of 1901 the Club, therefore, started by endeavouring to educate the County Councils. Further legal restrictions seemed likely in the immediate future, and many County Councils had passed resolutions asking the Local Government Board to limit the speed of motor-cars to IO miles or less per hour. Chairmen and clerks of County Councils, and chief constables of counties were invited to attend a conference which was held in February, and later on, in June, 1900, a demonstration was convened which was attended by hundreds of county councillors, and motorcar runs were organised for their benefit all over the country. To realise the result of this stupendous and carefully thought out campaign and its attendant results, one has only to look back and note that the County Councils Association, the central body representing Local Government, passed a resolution to the effect that, provided cars carried in future identification plates and their drivers were licensed, it would ask for no specified speed-limit. In this case the County Councils Association proved much wiser than the House of Parliament in 1903.

The big Continental race of 1901 took place over a course from Paris to Berlin, and contest was encouraged both by the French and the German Governments. The winner, M. Fournier, on a 60-h.p. Mors, averaged 462 miles an hour. Comparing this record with previous times, each succeeding contest brought forward cars of bigger horse-power of more reliable char- THE TATE CENTRAL LIBRARY BRIXTON, S.W. acter and more perfect pattern; 110 competitors started in the big 1901 race, which instrumental in bringing together the various enthusiasts of the different countries, nearly every big European was 1901. 40-H.P. PANHARD. country being represented. The second Gordon Bennett Race in 1901 was won by M. Giradot, who drove a 40-h.p. Panhard car at an average speed of 38 miles per hour. France was represented by Levegl on a 60-h.p. Mors (a monster in those days). M. Charron (Panhard), S. F. Edge was the only English competitor, but could not participate in the actual race, as, by the conditions of the race, every part of the car must be made in the country it represented, and Edge's car was, unfortunately, fitted with French tyres.

In England the Automobile Club had now become a large and powerful body, and many provincial clubs were rapidly being formed, among the chief of them being the Scottish and Irish Automobile Clubs, the national clubs of their respective countries.

The Automobile Club itself found its quarters too small, and removed to a new clubhouse at 119 Piccadilly, thus marking its entry into social clubland. 1902 was a remarkable year for contests, both at home and abroad, and also for the growth of automobilism generally.

Hundreds of country gentlemen and wellto-do people began to realise the utility of the motor vehicle, and to press it into daily service. Motor manufacturers, especially those on the Continent, commenced to vie with each other to build big and luxuriously fitted cars and attain high speeds. At the Nice speed contest, Serpollet, on his steampropelled machine, achieved a speed of 70 miles an hour over a flying kilometre, a record which was again exceeded in August by Mr. Charles Jarrott, who, on a private road at Welbeck, drove a 70-h.p. Panhard at 794 miles per hour, only to be beaten again by Gabriel later in the month with a 60-h.p. Mors over a flying kilometre at 84.6 miles per hour. There is no doubt that these racing vehicles and their trials did much to improve the construction of the ordinary touring car, though at the time the speed attained made a bad impression on the public generally, for only too many people in England, ill-natured and jealous 1902. 60-H.P. PANHARD. of the progress being made as falsifying their prophecies of failure, were apt to class all mechanical vehicles as racing monsters, horrible and dangerous. The Gordon Bennett Race of 1902 was a memorable one from England's point of view, for it was won for the first and last time by an Englishman, Mr. S. F. Edge, who wrested the coveted trophy from France for this country. The race was over the road from Paris to Innsbruck. In the contest the French cars met with many reverses; Henri Fournier made very fast running, but had to abandon the race at Belfort after the first day's stage owing to a broken shaft and bent frame.

Numerous competitions and trials were also organised by the Automobile Club during the year, among the most important being the 650 miles Reliability Trial with 92 entrants, and the 4,000 miles Tyre Trial.

Motor-boating also began to come to the fore in this year, and a body called the Marine Motor Association was formed in November to act as the ruling body in all marine competitions and sports. The industry meanwhile organised its particular guardian body in the form of the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders, which was legally incorporated in the summer of 1902. This Society was the first really representative commercial body formed, though the Automobile Commercial Protection Association had been founded a year or two previously with the special object of preventing the undue extension of patent rights which at one time threatened the industry with considerable though unenforceable penalties for the use of devices in which there were no patentable qualities. 1903 was a very important year for the motor-car movement, for it was the year in which the first Act to regulate motorcars and motor-car traffic was brought in, [AUTOMOBILES superseding the experimental Light Locomotives Act of 1896. Remembering the unfortunate part which various Houses of Commons and Governments had played in former years in regard to mechanical traction, those members of the House who were in touch with the new industry were naturally apprehensive lest any attempt should be made to interfere with the progress of automobilism. They knew that very little unwise legislation would throw this country back into the state produced by the restrictions of 1833, and would, therefore, handicap England in relation to other countries, who were less hampered, and in which a more liberal spirit prevailed.

A committee of Parliamentary motorists had been formed in 1902 under the leadership of the Hon. John Scott Montagu, M.P. (Lord Montagu), the Hon. Arthur Stanley, M.P., Mr. (now Sir) Henry Norman, M.P., and others, who, irrespective of party, determined to uphold the cause of automobilism, and who on this occasion had many preliminary meetings in order to decide as to amendments in the Act where they seemed necessary. The Bill as originally introduced by the Government in the House of Lords may have been said to have been on the whole an excellent one, and was certainly far ahead of the legislation which had preceded it. To begin with, the Bill, as first introduced into the Upper House in July, after an interesting debate, was passed practically unaltered. It included the numbering of cars, the licensing of drivers, and gave power to the Local Government Board the power to make regulations. Lord Balfour of Burleigh, the representative of the Local 3 PEUGEOT CAR DRIVEN BY GOUX.

Government Board in the House of Lords, defended the absence of a speed-limit on the ground that speed in itself was not necessarily dangerous, but only speed in the wrong place and at the wrong time, and it was pointed out both by him and other AUTOMOBILES] speakers that Section I. of the Act, which enjoined upon the motorist the necessity of driving with due regard to the traffic which might be expected on the highway, and threw the responsibility of driving to the common danger on the motorist at whatever speed he was proceeding, was a far better safeguard for the public than a rigid speedlimit, which would be illogical and difficult to enforce. In this form that is, without a speed-limit, but with numbering and licensing the Bill passed the House of Lords and went to the House of Commons.

Here the attitude of the Legislature became changed. Members, both Unionist and Liberal, sitting for agricultural constituencies, feared opposition from their constituents, while horse-breeders and other allied trades were becoming acutely aware that this new form of locomotion boded them no good, and would probably lead to the gradual cessation of the use of horses for traffic purposes and the substitution of mechanical means of traction. In due course the Government became aware of this feeling, and Mr. Walter Long, the President of the Local Government Board, who would have liked, no doubt, to have carried the Bill as it stood, had to bow before the storm, as the Government Whips told him that they could not count on securing a majority for the Bill as it stood. Eventually it was settled by the Government that some speed-limit should be inserted. When the Parliamentary Automobile Committee heard this, they took steps to resist it by every means in their power, but, as they only numbered 57, and as the Liberal Party as a whole were prepared to vote with the Government, giving the latter an assured majority, it was obvious that the insertion of a definite speed-limit was unavoidable.

Seeing that defeat on this point was inevitable, they endeavoured to get as high a speed as possible inserted. On the other hand, the anti-motorist party stipulated for not more than 15 miles an hour as a maximum speed. Eventually the Government were able to induce a sufficient number of their followers to accept 20, and 20 miles an hour was fixed as the maximum speed, after an amendment suggesting 25 miles an hour had been moved by Mr. Montagu and defeated. As a concession, however, the Bill was made to expire in three years in order that, if necessary, this portion of the Act might be reconsidered. But various other amendments were proposed by the Parliamentary automobilists and carried.

It should be put on record that the 57 members of the Automobile Committee made a fight which was probably unprecedented in the case of a measure of this kind, for its strenuousness and the length at which the Bill was debated. The House met on Friday at noon to consider the Bill in Committee, and the debate was carried on throughout the whole of that day and night up to between 5 and 6 o'clock on the Saturday morning, a period of 18 hours' continuous sitting, during which the leading motorist champions were hardly absent from their seats for one moment. It is largely to their efforts on this occasion that the subsequent rapid progress of motoring in this country was due, for, had the Government not realised the determination of this gallant band of 57, most of whom were practical automobilists, they would have taken the easier course and given way still more to the anti-motorists, who were at that time in a large majority on both sides in the House of Commons. The proceedings of Parliament are not always easy to understand, and the general public is curiously ignorant of the details of procedure in such cases. There was some little outcry, therefore, afterwards against those who specially represented automobilism in Parliament, on the ground that they had accepted too easily the speed-limit of 20 miles an hour, and some critics averred that it would have been better to have lost the Bill altogether than to have accepted it in its modulated form. But those who argued thus did not understand first of all that the Bill was a Government one, and by no amount of insistence could the Parliamentary motorists have secured its withdrawal, and, secondly, that when 57 votes are opposed to 300, the minority have to accept, whether they like it or not, the decisions which the division lobbies confirm.

This feeling was very strong in some places, and some leading motorists outside the House of Commons and some of the motoring press, ill-informed as to the real state of affairs, declared that not only had the Parliamentary motorists betrayed their trust, but that automobilism was irrevocably ruined-this was stated in the Automobile Club Journal of the day and that there was no future now for this young and growing industry. The absurdity of these criticisms need hardly be commented on in the year 1910. The fact was that the Parliamentary leaders of the movement saw that half a loaf was better than no bread, and that the half loaf was inevitable, and realised that the 20 miles an hour was far better than the 12 miles an hour which existed under the 1896 Act, though the penalties for contravening certain regulations were too heavy, and that, as every passing year would augment the number of motorists and their influence on every kind of public body, including Parliament. Time was on their side. To have destroyed the Bill, even had it been possible, would have been folly. In fact, in view of the Government's attitude on the question, they undoubtedly took the right course. Looking back on the years which have elapsed since 1903, it can honestly be said that the Motor Car Act of 1903 has worked very fairly well, with the single exception of the "police trapping" system, which was, of course, not contemplated when the Act was passed, and which is more a matter of administration or mal-administration than of legislation. The prejudice with which the law has been administered in some districts and the bias which has been shown by antimotorist magistrates, notably in the counties of Surrey and Sussex, have tended to disgust not only motorists, but an increasing number of moderate-minded men, and the vindictive character of the proceedings in many cases has been little short of a public scandal.

The power of appeal in the case of all fines over £1, however, is now being somewhat more freely used, and Quarter Session and the Higher Courts are constantly reversing the decisions of prejudiced benches. It will be some time, however, before motorists can hope to receive really judicial treatment uninfluenced by the dislike which so many magistrates openly avow for motor-cars and motorists in general. It should also be recalled that one of the chief objections raised by some motorists to the Act of 1903 was that for the first time it enforced the use of numbers on cars for the purpose of identification and the taking out of a driving licence by each individual motorist. It was said at the time that no one would care to label their cars in this way, and that the bearing of a number savoured strongly of the treatment of a convict. It was also urged with more reason that if motorists were numbered, other vehicles should be numbered also, for instances of drivers having caused an accident and subsequently driving away, leaving the injured unhelped, were just as numerous amongst those in charge of horses as amongst motorists.

Whatever force this argument may have had at the time, it is certain that the decision to accept identification by numbers, though much criticised at the time, was one of the wisest actions of the Parliamentary Party.

Those who did not wish to run away had nothing to fear from numbering, whilst those who were disposed to escape or had committed any offence against the law were easy to trace. In practice it has been [AUTOMOBILES proved over and over again that by means of these numbers motor-car drivers who have driven to the danger of the public have been identified greatly to the advantage of the rest of the automobile community who use their cars sensibly and considerately.

Not only this, but a good deal of public prejudice was at once allayed, for it was more and more recognised that it was in the best interests to suppress the road-hog and to secure the due punishment of reckless offenders.

From this year (1903) and onwards, partly owing to the debate of the House of Commons having given the subject prominence, and partly owing to the increasing number of motor-cars, numerous letters appeared in the newspapers protesting against the speed at which the new vehicles were driven, and declaring that 12, or at the outside 15, miles an hour was fast enough.

All kinds of irrational abuse were showered on motorists, and some newspapers, which have since adopted a totally different tone, led a hot campaign against the small and struggling community, probably not exceeding 10,000 to 15,000 in all, who were trying to convert their fellowcountrymen and the country in general to mechanical locomotion, to make them see how useful this new kind of transport was going to be, and what a pity it was to throw so many difficulties in the way of its development. This Press campaign, which lasted more or less for two or three years, usually took the form of reporting every single motor-car accident or trouble, however trivial, and magnifying it and imparting all possible prejudice into it. In many cases accidents solely concerning horse carriages and tram-cars were headed "motor accidents," and such was the virulent antipathy displayed that the Automobile Club had on more than one occasion to expose the deliberate falsity of such news, and to show either how exaggerated, or how unfounded were the charges brought against motorists in many cases. In fact, one may say that till 1905 or 1906 the whole atmosphere surrounding the journalistic treatment of the motor-car was that of unjust prejudice. There may have been reason for this tendency, which can only be hinted at, but at any rate it is significant that, with the great increase in advertising derived from the motor-car industry, the prejudice gradually vanished, and a much more fair tone became observable. some Though the Motor Car Act was the feature of the year in regard to the history of the movement, the racing events of 1903 were also important in many ways. The AUTOMOBILES] Nice Race Meeting of 1903 saw most of the fast racing cars then built, and the chief motorists of the day gathered together.

The unfortunate death of Count Zborowski when running his racing Mercédès on the La Turbie Hill naturally cast a gloom over the whole meeting. The Paris-Madrid Race, organised by the French Club, resulted in a series of disasters and the death of two well-known motorists and one other competitor. The race had promised to be an exciting contest, no less than 216 competing cars starting from Versailles for made while the race lasted from Paris to Bordeaux (324 miles) :hours mins. secs.

Gabriel (Mors) Sulleron (Mors) ... 5 13 13 an average of 66 m.p.h. ... 5 46 I Jarrott (De Dietrich) 5 Warden (Mercédès) 51 55 5 56 30 De Crawtez 6 I 8 ...

Voigt (G C.V. 6 I ... 9 Gasteaux (Mercédès) 6 8 o Louis Renault (Renault) made fast time in the light car section, covering the course in 5 hrs. 33 mins. 59 secs.

For some time after this most unfortunate 4.4787 HILL TRIALS.

Bordeaux, a distance of 324 miles, from whence they were to run over the frontier to the Spanish capital. M. Louis Renault was the first to reach Bordeaux, Jarrott, the English driver, came in second, while Gabriel, on a Mors car, took third place, though he made the best time, covering the distance in 3132 mins. Marcel Renault, brother of the first arrival at Bordeaux, met his death at the corner of a road near Poitiers. Several injuries also were reported to spectators; it was, of course, impossible to protect the whole of this route, and the roads were not kept clear. The authorities abandoned the race after Bordeaux, and the cars in racing and tourist classes proceeded to Madrid under ordinary conditions. The following is a record of the principal times race it was feared that the English authorities would forbid the running of the Gordon Bennett Race in Ireland, but, knowing that the race would take place under very different circumstances from those of the big French race, the Automobile Club pressed for its fulfilment, and the race took place as arranged on July 2nd, a special Bill having been piloted through the Commons by Mr. Scott Montagu to sanction the race on British roads. The English Eliminating Trials were held in April, at Welbeck, on the Duke of Portland's estate. The following is a list of the teams :- England- S. F. Edge (winner of the 1902 Gordon Bennett) C. Jarrott (Napier).

Stocks دو France- Chevalier R. de Knyff (Panhard).

H. Jarman Gabriel وو دو America- [AUTOMOBILES hours mins. secs.

Baron de Crawher (Panhard) Giradot (G.C.V.) De Bron (De Dietrich) Le Blon (Serpollet) 6 ... ... ... 31 3 Percy Owen (Winton).

Mooers Winton Germany- Jenatzy De Caters Foxhall Keene وو دو (Mercédès). وو و" 1 Right from the start, the American team encountered misfortune, for Winton's car refused to start when the signal was given.

The enthusiasm of the Irish, always a sporting people, in connection with this race was remarkable. The nature of the course was such as to make careful driving at times both necessary and desirable. The French team drove admirably, and to them fell the team prize of a silver trophy, presented by the "Car" illustrated. Jarrott, unfortunately, met with an accident while rounding a corner, the car overturning and injuring both the driver and mechanic. In connection with this incident occurred an act of courtesy on the part of Baron de Caters, a Belgian, but one of the German team, who not only stopped when passing Jarrott to see if he could be of assistance, but stopped again in the middle of his running to give the news at the Grand Stand that Jarrott was not seriously hurt.

At this junction the contest was anybody's race," and Baron de Caters's sportsmanlike action in jeopardising his chance will not be forgotten by the motor world. 66 The following is a table of the first five who finished the course, and is a striking testimony of the regular running of the cars on the circuit :- The Brescia Circuit in September may be said to have been the commencement of the Italian automobile racing, and quite fittingly was won by a car of Italian manufacture, a Fiat, piloted by Lancia. 1904. As regards sport in 1904, the year opened with a race meeting on the Ormond Daytona Beach at Florida, U.S.A., in January. A large fleet of cars collected together for this meet, and some thousands of American motorists who had enthusiastically taken up the new sport witnessed the races on this admirable beach track.

Mr. W. K. Vanderbilt on this occasion achieved a speed of 92 miles an hour on his 90-h.p. Mercédès car. It had been suggested by many motorists when the idea was first formulated of using this beach track that the sand would seriously damage the tyres, but on examination at this and subsequent meetings it was found that the hard wet sand was not injurious, and that even at the end of some of the fifty-mile races the tyres were remarkably cool. In the Riviera spring meeting, which began towards the end of March, the chief interest, as had been the case in later years, was centred in the marine motors, but some very fine performances were made by the racing cars. Quite a cosmopolitan gathering of cars, makers, and their owners were now seen at the principal race meetings, and Nice was now recognised as a record-breaking track. It was on the Riviera that the first record of 100 miles an hour was made by a French car, and later on also a speed IST. 2ND. 3RD. 4TH. 5TH. 6tn. 7TH.

TOTAL.

M. S.

H. M. S.

H. M. S.

H. M. S.

H. M. S.

H. M. S.

H. M. S H. M. S.

Jenatzy De Knyff ... 48 58 I I I I9 49 43 I I I 52 53 16 I I I 32 I 2 16 6 39 o ... 49 47 I 2 31 50 57 I 8 16 51 40 I 3 30 I 3 50 6 50 40 Jarman ... 47 41 I IO 27 49 35 I 5 55 50 31 I 2 7 7 I 5 28 6 51 44 Gabriel ... 53 IO I I o I9 I 2 37 I 4 20 51 4 Edge... ... 46 23 I I 7 3 I 27 59 I 24 49 I 14 35 1 13 52 155 21 I 65 7 II 33 I 22 21 9 13 48 It will thus be seen that Edge's first round was the fastest; the winner's average worked out at 49.25 miles per hour.

The Circuit des Ardennes was run on June 22nd. Happily, this French contest shared a better fate than its larger predecessor. To obviate the nuisance of dust, which had proved so troublesome in the Paris-Madrid Race, the course, a stretch of 50 miles, was oiled. The course was covered six times, and the best performances were as follows:of 120 kilometres an hour was attained by M. Serpollet on his Serpollet steam car. At the 1904 meeting both records were beaten by the French motorist, Rigolly, on a 110h.p. Gobron-Brillee car, for he accomplished a speed of 152 kilos. 540 metres an hour, or 9434 miles an hour. Napier and Mercédès cars also made good times. The race on La Turbie Hill for the De Caters' Cup was won by Duray, also steering a Gobron Brillee car, who covered 500 metres in 26 secs. Speed trials at Ostend Nieuport AUTOMOBILES] took place in May, many of the leading Continental racing motorists taking part.

Baron de Caters on this occasion covered a flying kilometre in 23 secs. 98 miles an hour-on his 90-h.p. Mercédès car.

The Ladies' Automobile Club was formed in June, 1904, and speedily became a great success. During that summer and in subsequent years many meets and gymkhanas were organised by the L.A.C., which has now a membership roll of nearly 500.

In consequence of Jenatzy's victory in Ireland in 1903, the fifth Gordon Bennett race (1904) took place in Germany. The English Eliminating Trial, from which the three British competitors were chosen, was run over the Isle of Man course in May.

Eleven cars started on this trial, five his Napier, rounded in the second course in 43 mins.; this driver, unfortunately, at the end of the speed tests on the third day, met with an accident which badly damaged the car and put him out of the running altogether. The following team was chosen at the end of the trials to represent England in the cup race: S. F. Edge (Napier), Sidney Girling (Wolseley), and C. Jarrott (Wolseley). The last-named had also undertaken to drive a De Dietrich car in the French Eliminating Trials. The French Eliminating Trials were held over the Circuit de l'Argonne, the Automobile Club of France organising these trials in a splendid way, laying the whole circuit with westrumite to keep down the dust; the French Government also told off 3,000 soldiers to M36 PARKWAY MOTOR RACE, U.S.A.

Napiers, three Darracqs, and three Wolseleys, for the much-coveted honour of representing England in the big international race. The competitors were all well-known men in the racing motor world, being Messrs.

S. F. Edge (Napier), winner of the Gordon Bennett Cup of 1902; J. W. Stocks (Napier), W. Edmond (Darracq), John Hargreaves (Napier), M. Henery (Darracq), Clifford Earp (Napier), Campbell Muir (Wolseley), Sidney Girling (Wolseley), A. Rawlinson (Darracq), Charles Jarrott (Wolseley), and Lt. Col. Mark Mayhew (Napier). The circuit of the course was 51 miles I furlong in length, and had to be traversed six times; 580 constables guarded the course, which the Automobile Club had taken great pains to render safe and dustless. Six cars finished the first day's test of eight hours' running, and on the following days over a threeround test on the circuit seven cars turned up the three Darracqs not putting in an appearance, the Napier driven by Lt. Col.

Mayhew was also an absentee. Earp, on guard the course. Previously the A.C.F. had selected representatives without competing tests, but there were too many important and powerful cars in the French field to make an arbitrary selection successful. Twenty-nine competitors started, amongst them the cream of the Continental racing motorists: Gabriel, Baras, Hanriot, Baron de Crawhez, L. Théry, Le Blon, Salleron, Farman, Rigolly, Rogier, Jarrott, Beconnais, Guders, Fournier, Caillois, Chauliand, Leger, Teste, Duray, De la Touloubre, Baron de Forest, Wagner, Clément, Amblard, Stead, Pelser, Levergue, Tart, and Burton. The French test was finely organised and fairly run. A notable incident occurred in connection with this race, which speaks well for the French manufacturer and his ability to cope with disaster. The weighing-in of the competing vehicles took place on Thursday; on the preceding Tuesday a Georges Richard car, driven by Caillois, had been badly burnt, the back wheels entirely destroyed. This car was removed to the works at Ivry, a gang of workmen turned on to it, and at 4 o'clock on the Thursday the car weighed in with the others for the race-a veritable record for repairs. Rigolly, on his Gobron Brillee car, was prime favourite, but the race resulted in a surprise, for the very highpowered cars were weeded out, apparently not being strong enough for long-distance travelling. The sixth and last round of the circuit found the cars in the following places: Thery, on a Georges Richard; Salleron, on a Mors; and Rougier, on a Turcat; Gabriel (De Dietrich), Le Blon (Serpollet), Caillois (Georges Richard).

The first three were therefore the representatives of France for the Gordon Bennett Cup Race, Théry averaging 61.7 miles an [AUTOMOBILES cluded from running. The race itself was held on a course over the Taunus Mountains -over four circuits measuring in all 3432 miles. "A grand race, strenuously run," was the general verdict of the 1904 Gordon Bennett Cup Race. Tremendous crowds witnessed the memorable race, representatives of every nationality being present. The Kaiser himself witnessed the race, and took a deep interest in the fortunes of the various cars. Amidst great excitement the French driver, Théry, on a Richard Brassier car, came in the victor, and thus France regained the trophy. The consistent running of the winner's car was one of the remarkable features of the race, a feature which he afterwards maintained in other LA COURSE DU MONT VENTOUX. BERNY ON A HISPANO-SUIZA CAR. hour over the whole course. Germany had abandoned holding any Eliminating Trials, and the selection was made by the German Automobile Club; two Mercédès and an Opel Darracq were selected. American cars suffered much bad luck, and finally were withdrawn from participating in the race. Italy and Austria sent their full complement of entries, while Switzerland had one representative, Dufaux, on an 80-h.p.

Dufaux car. The complete teams were as follows:- England. S. F. Edge (Napier), S. Girling (Wolseley), C. Jarrott (Wolseley).

France.-L. Théry (Richard Brassier), Salleron (Mors), Rougier (Turcat Méry).

Germany. Jenatzy (Mercédès), De Caters (Mercédès), Opel (Opel Darracq). cars).

Belgium.-Angiers, De Crawhez, Hautvast (all Pipe Austria. Warden, Braun, Werner (all Mercédès cars).

Italy. Cagno, Lancia, Storero (all Fiat cars).

The Swiss car met with an accident at the preliminary weighing-in, and was ex- 66 contests, and which won for him the name of clockwork Théry." The winning car completed the course in 5 hrs. 50 mins., Jenatzy, the second, in 6 hrs. I min. 28 secs.

Later in the year at Arras some good records were made by the French drivers Beconnais and Barras on Darracq cars, who covered a standing mile in 1 min. sec., while Hanriot, on a Bayard car, covered a flying kilometre in 28 seconds. The American racers, though they had not shown up to any great advantage in the trials for the Gordon Bennett representation, continued to hold various track races during the summer.

In June, at Readville, near Boston, Mr.

Vanderbilt's Mercédès, driven by Sartorri, won the IO mile open race in IO mins. 8 secs.

An American on a Durbin steam car covered the five mile course of another race in 5 mins. 3 secs.

July 14th saw the opening of the Ostend Race Meeting for this year over the welllaid roads at Ostend and Snaeskerke. Baron de Caters, on his 90-h.p. Mercédès, AUTOMOBILES] covered a distance of 5 kilometres in 2 mins. 525/8 secs., a speed of well over 100 kilometres an hour. Several big and wellknown cars took part in the 10-kilometre race, which Rigolly covered in 4 mins. 43 secs. In the mile race previous records rapidly fell, and it was calculated that several of the cars ran the last portion of the mile at a speed of over 160 kilometres an hour, while in the flying kilometre all previous records were wiped out by the feat of Rigolly on his Gobron-Brillie, who covered this distance in 21% secs., at a speed of 103½ miles an hour, the first record of over 100 miles per hour. Barras, his rival competitor, was not far behind this time, as he covered the same distance in 22 secs. been laid. Some high-powered cars were in evidence at this particular meeting, among them being two 100-h.p. Darracqs belonging to Mr. A. Guinness and Mr.

Rawlinson, Mr. Clifford Earp's 100-h.p.

Napier, and the Hon. C. S. Rolls's 100-h.p.

Mors. Mr. Earp was successful in doing the kilometre run in 26 secs., a speed equivalent to 84.68 miles an hour, exactly the same speed as that which Mr. Rolls had attained on the Welbeck track earlier in the year.

In France, throughout the summer, race meetings and hill-climbing contests became very popular.

Early in 1904 much dissatisfaction was expressed amongst automobilists generally, and amongst its members in particular, LA COURSE DU MONT VENTOUX. LANCIA CAR DRIVEN BY TANGAZI. Belgium held its 1904 contest over the Ardennes Circuit, which measured 373 miles. The victory fell to a French Panhard car, steered by Heath, an American driver, who had made many unsuccessful attempts in various contests. The failures through tyre troubles were particularly notable in this race, which was run continuously without controls, many competitors losing all chance through this cause. On all sides it was universally admitted that improvement in tyre construction was necessary. Heath accomplished the 373 miles in 6 hrs. 30 mins. 49 secs.

Various minor meetings were organised in England by the Automobile Club; a very successful gathering took place on the track at Bexhill in August. Mr. A. L. Guinness succeeded in covering a kilometre at a speed of 58 m.p.h. on his 60-h.p.

Mercédès. Among some other good sporting events which were held at English summer resorts was the meeting at Blackpool in October, where a splendid track had against several actions of the Automobile Club. The annual motor show organised by the S.M.M. & T. was generally accepted as the official show for the industry, and it was felt by the trade that a multiplicity of shows was mistaken policy. Despite the fact that the majority of manufacturers had undertaken to exhibit at the S.M.M. & T. show, then held at the Crystal Palace, but in subsequent years at Olympia, the club granted its patronage to Mr. Cordingly's show for the sum of £500. In other ways also a tendency to trade and to compete with legitimate business in the motoring world was manifested; there was much dissatisfaction with the Automobile Club Journal, and also with the censure they had passed on the Parliamentary Committee after the passing of the Motor Car Act by the House of Commons, followed by injudicious letters which had been circulated to County Councils, an action which alienated numerous M.P.'s and local authorities throughout the country. The prestige and the future of the Club were at stake, and it was felt that the Club Committee needed reforming, and that it was necessary that a fresh policy should be undertaken. The controversy affected not only the Club and its members, but the whole of the industry.

Both the motoring Press and the daily Press took up the matter strongly, and before the annual general meeting of the Club, various prominent members were hard at work endeavouring to instil new blood and much-needed reform into the parent body of automobilism. A reform party, organised by Lord Montagu, published a manifesto putting forth the fact that the Club had acted in several cases in such a way as to cause difficulties which resulted in the resignation of many leading motorists.

The manifesto pleaded for the election of a new committee, and suggested sundry reforms. This reform committee sent out proxies for the ballot of its proposed new committee a week before the general meeting concurrently with the old committee's appeal for re-election. The annual meeting held on March 10th saw a record attendance of members at the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and the complete victory of the reform party. Out of the fifty names which had been put forward by the reform party, forty-nine were elected.

Mr. Roger Wallace, who had accomplished excellent work as the first chairman of the Automobile Club thereupon resigned his position, and Colonel Holden, R.E., was elected to take his place. Mr. Julian W.

Orde, who succeeded Mr. Claude Johnson as secretary of the Club in 1903, continued in that capacity.

Track racing in America furnished some exciting contests in September, the Pope Toledo, an American-built car, gaining a victory in a five-mile contest, covering the track, a by no means easy one, in 7 mins. 2 secs. The Ford car, also American, made a good showing for itself against the so often victorious Mercédès cars. At the end of October some speed matches were held on the Empire City track at New York, when Barney Oldfield, an expert American track racer, ran against Théry, the French driver; Sartori, who drove Mr. Vanderbilt's Fiat; and Bernin, on a New Renault car.

In the first heat Théry raced against Sartori on a ten-mile course, the Italian driver winning, covering the distance in 9 mins. 45% secs. The American defeated Bernin in the second heat, his time being 9 mins. 44 secs., in the final defeating Sartori by a run in 9 mins. 12% secs., somewhat to the surprise of the Continental racers.

The American race for the Vanderbilt [AUTOMOBILES Cup was the last important event of the year. The victory went to France, who took the bulk of the laurels for 1904, the Gordon Bennett Cup, the Ardennes Circuit, and here again in America carried off the trophy, though an American driver (Heath) steered the winning Panhard to victory.

The malicious action of certain farmers in the district of Long Island, where the race was run, somewhat spoilt the speed of the cars by their action in placing broken glass and nails on the track. France entered six cars for the competition, America five, Germany five, and Italy two. an Various inventors, many of them of a not very practical turn of mind, began in 1904 to build cars which, though they aroused a good deal of excitement and some Press notoriety, did not do much in actual running. In the early part of the year M. Bellamy, of whom little had been heard previously, constructed 8-cylinder car of 165 h.p. The car was geared to attain a speed of 115 miles an hour, and the engine consumed, according to report, 50 litres of petrol an hour. No particular or startling record was ever achieved by this powerful car. The Buffum car, 8 cylinders, 100 h.p., turned out in the United States in the spring, was never heard to make a good account of itself. Messrs.

Dobelli, of Rome, placed on exhibition in this country at the premises of Messrs. C.

Friswell, in Albany Street, London, a car fitted with a tremendous engine reputed to develop 180 h.p. This freak car had four cylinders, the dimensions being 8½ bore by 182 stroke; a specially large Longuemare carburetter was fitted on account of the large petrol consumption.

India had now begun to take more than a passing interest in the new form of locomotion; many of the native rajahs had been quick to recognise the advantages and capabilities of the new form of locomotion, and many luxurious cars were finding a ready sale in the East. An organised body of motorists had been formed at Bombay, entitled the "Motor Union of North- Western India," and this body organised and carried out a very successful series of trials from Delhi to Bombay, a distance of 880 miles. India possesses some very fine roads in certain parts of the country.

These trials were open to cars of all types and sizes, a considerable number of British cars competing. Thirty-two cars lined up at the start. The running lasted for eight days, some portions of the route trying the cars very severely. The first prize, termed the Gaikwar's Cup (1,000 rupees), for the most reliable car, was won by Mr. C. Sorel's AUTOMOBILES] De Dietrich; the second prize was secured by a Speedwell car for economy in running, and a third, for the best condition, by a De Dion.

At the end of January, 1905, Italy, which had hitherto not possessed an official representative body, formed its Automobile Club, with headquarters at Turin. 1905.-Track racing on the Florida Beach, U.S.A., in January, opened the racing of the year. This meeting was carried out on a big scale; the course was machine was over the racing limit weight.

Macdonald afterwards covered the flying kilometre in 23 secs.

Motor-cars were for the first time permitted to cross over the Simplon Pass, the order forbidding their passage being withdrawn in the spring of this year (1905). In the early part of the year the Automobile Club of France held a meeting to discuss the conditions of the Gordon Bennett Race. For some time a feeling had been manifested that the apa W. K. VANDERBILT ON HIS MERCÉDÈS CAR. of 20 miles. Frank Croker, an American racing man on a big Simplex car, in trying to avoid a motor-cyclist who crossed his path, unfortunately met with a fatal accident. A Napier car, driven by Macdonald, made a good score in the mile record, covering the distance in 34 secs., or at the rate of 105.8 miles an hour. A large and powerful Mercédès, developing 120 h.p. traversed this track mile in 32 secs. at the stupendous speed of 1092 miles an hour. The 100 miles race for the Vanderbilt Cup was won by a 90-h.p. De Dietrich, steered by Fletcher, who covered the distance in 78 mins. 24 secs., the average speed working out at 76½ miles an hour. This record was not officially recorded, as the pointment of three cars for each nation was not equitable. A country with many manufacturers, such as France, was severely handicapped in comparison with, say, Switzerland, in which there were few manufacturers; France would be put to huge expense by reason of the necessary eliminating trials, which in countries where the industry was less developed would not be necessary. The French club decided at this meeting that the race should be held this year, but that after 1905 France would not compete unless the rules were altered. It was suggested also, in order to give the French constructors a further opportunity of racing their cars, that at the same time as the Gordon Bennett Race was being run, a race should be held for an International Grand Prix, to be awarded by the Automobile Club of France. The effort to turn the Gordon Bennett Race, which was looked upon as a sporting event, into a more or less manufacturers' test, was resented by the other countries, the British Press and leading motorists being anxious to retain the international sporting character of this big event. The A.C.F. later on proposed that an Eliminating Trial should be held from which the three best cars representing France in the Gordon Bennett Race would be selected, and twelve further cars to qualify for the Grand Prix.

Six cars were allotted to represent England's team, six German, three Austrian, three American, three Belgian, three Italian, and three Swiss. The English Automobile Club strongly protested against the holding of another race concurrently with the Gordon Bennett test, and the German Club also announced their intention that they did not approve of the two races being held at the same time; the Swiss, Italian, and Belgian Clubs also emphatically protested against the proposal. Much correspondence between the Clubs and the A.C.F. ensued, and columns appeared in the Press, notably in the French papers. Eventually it was agreed to call an international conference on the matter, and on February 20th a meeting of the representatives was held in Paris, at which the A.C.F. gave way, largely owing to the firm stand made by the secretary of the A.C.G.B.I., Mr. Julian Orde. At this meeting it was resolved that the Gordon Bennett Race should be run alone under the existing rules; that the proposed Grand Prix should be held 15 days later; that the Clubs taking part in the Gordon Bennett contest should support the expenses; and that the rules governing the Gordon Bennett Race should be revised for following years, and a proportionate representation given to each country, according to the extent of its motoring industry. It was afterwards suggested that the Grand Prix should be run in such a way as to form the Eliminating Test for the French cars for the Gordon Bennett Race. Finally, owing to the attitude of the French manufacturers, the Gordon Bennett Race was abandoned. The Auvergne Circuit was decided upon as the scene for the contest, a course running over the beautiful Puy-de-Dome country, and representing by no means easy travelling.

For the Eliminating Trials of the French cars there were 24 entries, 3 Panhard, 3 Richard Brasier, 3 Bayard, 3 Darracq, 3 Renault, 3 De Dietrich, 3 Hotchkiss, I Gobron, I C.G.V., and I Automoto. The [AUTOMOBILES race for the selection of the French cars was an exciting one; great preparations were made by the A.C.F. on the course.

The course of 84 miles was covered four times to the finish of the race. The first lap was finished by Théry on his Richard Brasier car in 102 mins. 52 secs.; on the second he did not lose a minute compared with the first round; on the third lap he met with tyre troubles, and did not finish under I hr. 53 mins. In this lap Sizsz, on a Renault, and Caillois (Richard Brasier) gained on Théry. Duray, on a De Dietrich, had been up to this running second to Théry. At this juncture the race was by no means a foregone conclusion, and when, on the fourth round, Thery again lost time owing to tyre troubles, great excitement prevailed as the other cars crept up; but eventually Théry came in victor; Duray, who had been running him closely, being only 9 mins. behind in gross total time.

The first three cars were: (Théry) Richard Brasier, (Caillois) Richard Brasier, and (Duray) De Dietrich.

The first five cars were also chosen by the same test to represent France in the Vanderbilt Race: 2 Richard Brasier (Théry and Caillois), De Dietrich (Duray), Darracq (Wagner), Renault (Sizsz), with 2 reserve Panhard (Heath), and another Darracq, steered by Hemery. The Germans again did not hold an eliminative race for their team, selecting the cars as before.

The selection of the British team again The took place at the Isle of Man course. competitors were as follows: Cecil Edge, Clifford Earp, A. Macdonald, J. Hargreaves, all on Napier cars; Wolseley car (Bianchi), Sideley car (S. Girling), Star (F. Goodman), Darracq (A. Guinness), Wolseley (Hon. C. S. Rolls). The course is by no means an ideal one, but it is the only place that can be obtained by the Automobile Club for the purpose of such contests in the British Isles. Macdonald, on a Napier car, who was looked upon as a likely winner, met with an accident in the second round which put the car out of running. Guinness, on a Darracq, broke a connecting-rod after the first round; and Girling, on a Siddeley, also met with misfortune. Thus three cars were eliminated on the first round. The results were as follows: Napier (Clifford Earp), Wolseley (Hon. C. S. Rolls), Wolseley (Bianchi), with the two other Napier cars driven by Cecil Edge (cousin of Mr. S. F. Edge) and Mr. J. Hargreaves. The American drivers took their cars over to the Auvergne Circuit for practice work, the team consisting of two Pope Toledo cars of 50 h.p., driven AUTOMOBILES] by Messrs. H. P. Lytle and C. H. Dingley, and a 120-h.p. Locomobile, driven by Tracy. Switzerland and Belgium withdrew from the race, so that 18 competitors started, three Mercédès cars representing Germany, steered by Jenatzy, De Caters, and Werner respectively; the same well-known type of car representing Austria, while Italy put on the field three Fiat cars, handled by the formidable team in the shape of the since well-known racers, Lancia, Cagno, and Nazzaro. The race itself took place in July; the Auvergne course, by its nature, tends to add excitement to any race, owing to its many dangerous corners. a The next important event from a political point of view after the Motor Car Act of 1903 was the appointment of the Royal Commission on Motor Cars. This Commission, which was to consider the alterations advisable in the Act of 1903, which expired, but was renewed on December 31st, 1906, came into being in August of 1905. It had as its chairman former Speaker of the House of Commons, Lord Selby, and probably no better chairman could have been found, combining as he did great clarity of mind and legislative ability, with a naturally judicial temperament. The Commission took evidence from all parties interested, considered the law of other countries, even sending Commissioners abroad to study the conditions of motor-car traffic there, and eventually produced a report in the following year, May, 1906, in which, with two dissentients, they recommended the abolition of the speed-limit, relying for public safety on Clause I. of the 1903 Act, in which the Commission recommended some small alterations. They also advised the raising of the scale of taxation on motor-cars, and recommended some other rather less important changes. The Unionist Government had, however, resigned office in December, 1905, and the new Liberal Government had come in in January, 1906, with a large majority, pledged to all kinds of so-called social reforms. As regards motor-cars, they considered, probably rightly from a Parliamentary point of view, that the wisest course would be to extend the Motor Car Act for at any rate another year, and it was therefore included in the Expiring Laws Continuance Bill in the following July, and has thus been extended year by year to the present time. The recommendations of the Royal Commission, though distinguished for common sense and moderation, did not appeal to the majority of the House of Commons, who had but little practical acquaintance with automobilism, and had other and more important matters of a political character to bring forward. Mr. John Burns, the President of the Local Government Board, was probably quite right, therefore, when he decided not to alter the present law, but to let matters slide till public opinion had time to come round, and to become more reasonable as regards self-propelled vehicles. Mr. Burns, himself an engineer, at this and other times displayed great fairness of mind towards automobilism. One of the interesting points about the report were the tables produced giving the estimated number of motor vehicles. registered in the United Kingdom at different periods. In December, 1904, the figures given were as follows:- Motor cars 24,201.

Motor cycles 27,348.

Total 51,549.

The increase in their numbers is shown by the following:- 44,098. 42,438.

May 1906- Motor cars Motor cycles Total 86,638.

An increase of over 50 per cent. in one year and a half in the total number of PRIX DE FRANCE, BROOKLANDS, 1908. motor vehicles is thus shown, and it will thus be seen what tremendous strides were made in the general use of motor-cars as a means of conveyance between those dates.

The Royal Commission also considered and reported upon another subject of immense importance to the general public and motorists alike, viz., the dust nuisance.

There can be no doubt about the dustraising properties of the motor-car, and in a minor degree mud-splashing as well, both of which have been causes of its unpopularity with the public. Its greater speed has been by now more or less accepted, as often as not arousing interest and amusement, but the dust nuisance has become greater with every succeeding year, owing to the great increase in motor-cars, and L2 a there is no doubt that dwellers on the roadside and other users of the highway have had a great deal of justification in their complaints against the prevalence of this dust nuisance. But it should be noted first of all that motorists do not create dust; they only raise it after animals and other vehicles have created it, and the majority of the general public seem to forget that dust existed at all before the motor-car came into use. A hundred years ago our ancestors were endeavouring to find remedy for the dust nuisance, and the principal coaching roads at the beginning of the nineteenth century were regularly watered in order to allay the clouds of dust which were raised when the galloping coaches used them during the periods of dry weather. Even now, eighty to a hundred years afterwards, the roadside pumps are visible on most of the main roads leading out of London. The Portsmouth Road, the Bath Road, the Great North Road, and others, all bear witness to the fact that the roads in dry weather were regularly watered, even though the population living by the side of them was nothing like so great as to-day, and though only about half the population of to-day existed to use the roads. com- The importance of experimenting with a view to finding out how dust could be permanently laid, as apart from the use of temporary palliatives, such as watering, the effects of which wore off in a very short time, varying from an hour or two to one or two days, was soon impressed upon those who were leading the automobile munity. The Automobile Club had, through Mr. Claude Johnson's efforts, carried out in 1901 and 1902 some very interesting experiments, being assisted by Colonel R. E. Crompton and others, who had made a special study of the question of road-making and construction in general, and in 1904-5 Mr. Scott Montagu (Lord Montagu) initiated the Anti-Dust Fund through his journal The Car, which collected nearly a thousand pounds. Through this means he supplied to highway authorities in different districts various dust-laying fluids, such as westrumite, calcium chloride, and other mixtures, and gave grants towards the expense of laying down such road metal as tarmac to various highway and district councils and authorities. During this period the Motor Union, at the instigation of its secretary, Mr. Rees Jeffreys, an enthusiast on road improvement, also carried out more very useful experiments, and the attention of road surveyors was continually directed to the possibility of making roads dustless, [AUTOMOBILES either temporarily or permanently, and it was generally agreed that tar or tar fluids in some form were the best for achieving such results. Towards the end of 1905 Mr. E. Purnell Hooley, County Surveyor for Nottinghamshire, invented and patented a material called tarmac, which consisted of iron slag thrown hot into tar, the tar afterwards being drained off, and the metal used in the ordinary way for road-making. The effect of this was to impregnate thoroughly the slag, which was of a porous nature, with tar oils, and to make it therefore waterproof and dustless. Some hundreds of miles of road were made of it with marked success - notably the new Madeira Road at Brighton, where, in order to prove its absolute dustlessness, speed trials under the patronage of the Brighton Corporation were held in the summer of 1905, and it was seen that after the passage of the swiftest cars no sign of dust was at all apparent. A stretch of the Victoria Embankment opposite the Savoy Hotel was also laid with ordinary macadam tarred, and this stretch, which was subjected to the same traffic as the rest of the roadway, was proved to outlast ordinary macadam two or three times. In August, 1909, the whole of the Thames Embankment was laid with this tarred material, the use of ordinary macadam being entirely discontinued. It is interesting to record that the London County Council returns show that the keeping up in the old style of this piece of roadway used to cost £40,000 a year, a figure which has probably now been reduced by half, if not by two-thirds, owing to the use of the new material. It was calculated in 1909 that no less than 2,500 miles of main road were tarred in London and the home counties, while during the summer of 1910 probably about 4,000 to 5,000 miles were added to this figure. In Kent, in parts of Surrey, Hampshire, Buckingham, and Berkshire, the roads have been either tar-painted or tarred material has been laid down, particularly through villages or near residences which are situated on the edge of main roads. There is no doubt as to the marked success of this treatment, both from the point of view of expense of road upkeep, and this absence of dust has been a great boon not only to the population dwelling by the roadside, but to the road-using public as well. The revenue which the counties have obtained from motor-car registration fees and licence fees have no doubt helped very largely to pay for these experiments and treatments, and for the slight difference between tarred and untarred material, amounting to between 2s. 6d. and 5s. a ton.

AUTOMOBILES] When it is remembered that each car pays a registration duty of £1 Is., and an annual driving licence costs 5s., it will be seen that the automobile community, even if it has caused a good deal of damage to the roads and extra expense to the road-repairing authorities, already provides something towards the anti-dust treatment of roads, in addition to the sum of £750,000, which the Budget of 1909 levied from motorists towards highway and local expenses.

Up to 1905 the automobile community was represented in a corporate sense by the Automobile Club alone, and its democratic ally, the Motor Union, which was closely connected with it. But gradually it was held by many automobilists that the Club network of agents who are ready to advise travelling motorists of any points of danger and to tell them where special caution is The Automobile Association necessary. claim with justice that they have never in any way encouraged furious or inconsiderate driving, and their inspectors have over and over again reported cases where motorists have behaved badly to the public, and have often in such cases co-operated with the police and brought the offenders to justice. The coming of this body into the arena was naturally looked upon with some suspicion by both the already existing bodies, the Automobile Club and the Motor Union. It was also maintained by a large number of magistrates and some of the ZIEGLER ON ACME CAR, ISLE OF HOPE, U.S.A. 66 was not taking sufficient steps to protect motorists from the growing and unjust system of police-trapping which had become so prevalent in the home counties. Indeed, no motorists felt secure, however slow they were driving, from becoming a victim to deliberate unfairness on the part of the police, whose main idea, in Surrey and Sussex in particular, was to make a bag" by every possible means in their power.

The Automobile Association thus came into existence as an independent body in July, 1905, especially constituted to deal with the road aspect of automobilism, the original prospectus containing the following words: "To protect and advance the legitimate interests of motorists, and in particular to assist in the enforcement of the laws affecting the highways and the users thereof." Gradually, the Automobile Association has covered the whole of England with a police authorities that the warning of motorcars in the neighbourhood of traps would be held illegal as being an obstruction of the police in their duties, and would be severely condemned by the Courts. But the decision of the King's Bench in Bastable v. Little, where an agent of the Automobile Association was prosecuted for illegally obstructing the police in the execution of their duty, proved that individual motorists may warn other motorists of the existence of "traps," and be entirely within the four corners of the law. Other more recent decisions, though condemning conspiracy to defeat the police, have confirmed this view. From then until now the Automobile Association has had an unbroken series of success, and has enrolled over 14,000 members, thus forming the largest individual automobile corporation in the world, for the Royal Automobile Club has not more than 5,500 actual members, though the roll, counting its associated members as well, brings the total up to 12,000 more.

In its special province of attending to the wants of touring motorists and attending to the roads, the A.A. has been very successful, and while interfering but little in the main politics of automobilism, it fills a want which is fully recognised. Some rather cheap sneers are sometimes levelled against it as an illegal body on account of its too successful attempts to defeat the unfair tactics of the police. But it should be remembered, that in order to defeat unfair methods, it has been driven to adopt counter remedies, which perhaps are not in all cases quite justifiable. But, on the other hand, it has been clever enough to secure acquittal, on all occasions when it has been convicted, on appeal to the higher courts. If the speed-limit is ever seriously increased or abolished, it will be largely due to the efforts of the Automobile Association, which has practically shown up the police-trapping system and the absurdity and injustice of the majority of the cases brought under Section IX. of the Motor Car Act of 1903.

The Motor Union, which was for a long time an integral part of the Automobile Club, became an independent body in 1907, and its membership roll numbers over 13,000. It has made a special point of advocating the legislative interests of motorists, and its energetic secretary, Mr.

W. Rees Jeffreys, has from the start devoted himself to matters of road construction, and has achieved considerable success in forwarding the interests of motorists amongst county highway authorities. It claims to represent the democratic side of motoring, and is very popular among motorcyclists and the owners of small cars. Under Mr. Joynson Hicks's able guidance, it has done well, and seems now to be established on a firm basis. 1905. In this year the Tourist Trophy Race was organised by the Automobile Club as a contest for cars of the touring type, and it was open to members of foreign and affiliated clubs to participate. The course selected by the Club was that on which the Eliminating Trials for the Gordon Bennett Race were held in the Isle of Man. The total distance was about 208 miles 4 furlongs. Controls were eliminated on the course, but flagged portions were marked off in villages and at dangerous spots in which the competitors were forbidden to pass each other. Fifty-four competing vehicles entered-cars of English manufacture or those who had English agents. Petrol consumption entered largely into the [AUTOMOBILES marking system. The regulations provided that the petroleum spirit used should have a specific gravity of 0.695 to 0.705, and one gallon for every 22½ miles was allowed.

Many of the competing vehicles dropped out of the running at the end of the third and beginning of the fourth lap for want of petrol. An Arrol Johnson car of 18 h.p., driven by Mr. John Napier, came in winner, covering the course in 6 hrs. 9 mins. 14 secs. -average, 33.9 m.p.h. Sixteen out of the eighteen cars which finished were of British manufacture, so the race was a satisfactory testimony to the endurance and economy of British cars.

The contest for the Graphic Trophy, which was presented by the proprietors of the Graphic, was to have been run for the second time in connection with the Isle of Man Race, but was postponed owing to the misty conditions of the weather.

The conditions for the 1906 contest were altered in some instances, one gallon of petrol being allowed for every 25 miles, the weight of the chassis allowed to be not less than 1,275 lbs., and the load carried not less than 1,125 lbs. The Club reserved the right to disqualify a vehicle which did not conform with the ordinary touring type of car. The manner in which the regulations were framed limited the average speed which the car could attain by reason of stated weight and limit of fuel, but the award went to the vehicle covering the course in the shortest time.

The course was somewhat altered from that of the preceding year, being only 40 miles 6 furlongs in length, the four requisite laps making 163 miles. Forty-nine cars, amongst them fourteen cars of French manufacture, were entered, but many were withdrawn after preliminary trials on the course. It was observable that to cope with the hilly course a four-speed gear had been generally adopted. The average horsepower of the cars was not more than 20, some being as low as IO h.p. The Graphic Trophy contest preceded the Tourist Trophy Race, and was run over a hilly course. The victory fell to a 50-h.p.

Napier car, which attained a speed of over 55 m.p.h. The Trophy was won on the first occasion by a Humber car at the hill-climbing contest at Castlewellan, in Ireland, in 1903. Though the cars running in the Tourist Trophy Race were of comparatively low horse-power, some very fine running was made-too fine for some of the competitors, who found themselves completely out of the race with their petrol tanks empty. The result was a popular win for the Hon. C. S. Rolls on a 20-h.p. 4 LA COURSE DU MONT VENTOUX. AL DANGEROUS TURN.

THE TATE CENTRAL LIBRARY BRIXTON, S.W..

Rolls-Royce, whose car, after having run with remarkable regularity, came in victor.

The average speed for this little fourcylinder car worked out at 392 miles an hour. The measurement of petrol at the finish of the race produced some interesting figures, most of the finishing cars having very little left over. It was found that the winner had less than one pint when he crossed the line. Further alterations were made in the conditions governing the race for 1907. The distance to be covered was increased to 240 miles, the rule fixing the minimum weight of chassis was deleted, and the weight of load carried increased. Every competing car was required to demonstrate that it was capable of being stopped and restarted in ascending a hill of I in 6 on a forward gear. With each year the importance of the Tourist Trophy Race increased. Not only was it looked upon as a manufacturers' test and a guide to the reliability and economy of the various cars, but also as an annual sporting event-in fact, the biggest of race meetings held on British soil. The 1907 meeting combined three events-a race for motor-cycles, the Tourist Trophy Race itself, with a heavy touring car contest combined; and the shorter race for the Graphic Cup. The first event, the motor cycle race, produced an exciting struggle between very evenly matched machines. One machine, a 32-h.p.

Brown cycle, did a remarkable performance by covering 119 miles to a gallon of petrol.

The Tourist Trophy Race itself had become a drastic trial by reason of the stringent regulations over a not too easy course, but, as pointed out before, speed was by no means the only factor taken into consideration by the Royal Automobile Club in these competitions. The race was run in particularly inclement weather, a heavy mist hanging over the course. The regular running of a small Rover car enabled its driver, Mr. E. Courtis, to bring it in as victor and to win for both car and driver much admiration in accomplishing the run. The reward was well deserved when it was remembered that only two cars out of twenty-two starters completed the course. The other, a 16-20 Beeston Humber was the winner in the heavy car section. The Rover car's average speed worked out at 28.9 m.p.h., and it finished with just one pint of petrol in the tank. The Graphic Trophy was carried off by Mr. Hutton on a 60-h.p.

Berliet car, which covered the test hill near Ramsey in 3 mins. 40 secs.

The first contest for the Herkomer Trophy also took place in 1905 under the supervision of the Bavarian Automobile [AUTOMOBILES Club. For this competition a trophy was presented by Professor Von Herkomer valued at £500 for first prize, and was to be competed for in three annual races, to be won twice by the same competitor before it became his property. If not won twice by the same competitor, the cup was to be raffled for by the three winners. All recognised automobile clubs were allowed to send 6 2 O'GORMAN TROPHY, BROOKLANDS, OCTOBER, 1909. THE TWO VAUXHALL CARS WHICH LED THROUGHOUT. manuentrants. The route for the first year over which this contest took place lay from Munich to Baden-Baden for the first stage, Baden-Baden to Nuremberg for the second, and back to Munich for the third. One hundred and five competitors started on this interesting run, including several cars of British facture, the Daimler Co. sending five cars, which accomplished a very creditable performance. Hill-climbing on the Kessalberg Pass was included in the programme, a steep incline of 7 kilometres in length. On this gradient Mr. Clarence Gray Dinsmore's 70-h.p. Mercédès made the fastest running (7 mins. 29 secs.). The first prize was gained by Herr Edgar Ladenburg, on a 40-h.p. Mercédès car.

Mr. Glidden, a prominent American motorist who has become well known to the AUTOMOBILES automobile world as the "Globe Motorist," having travelled round the world more than once on his Napier car, offered a prize, the Glidden Trophy, for an American Reliability Test in 1905. This trial took place in August over some 870 miles of American. roads. Thirty-three vehicles started, and only five failed to finish the run, ten of the competitors completing this arduous tour without loss of marks. The trophy was won by Mr. Percy C. Pierce, who drove a 40-h.p. Pierce Arrow car.

The various Continental competitions for the purpose of testing the reliability of cars just before the race, and therefore fourteen cars started out on this contest. The struggle took place between four Panhards, three Darracqs, three De Dietrichs, two Mercédès, one C.G.V., and one Itala car.

The drivers of these cars were culled from the best racing blood of their respective countries, and, after an exciting race, Hemery, on a Darracq (French) car, came in victor, covering the course in 5 hrs. 58 mins. 32 secs. -average speed, 62/2 m.p.h.-a very fine performance.

The Brescia meeting in September took the form of an exhibition of cars, and BROOKLANDS MEETING, 1909. START OF RELAY RACE. grew more difficult as the cars became more and more perfect. The contest for the per Pyrenees Cup in August (in France) was over an extremely difficult route, and plainly demonstrated the capabilities and endurance of the touring class of cars. The trial extended over eight days, a distance of 820 miles being covered. An entry list of sixty-one vehicles resulted in an imposing start from Toulouse, the majority of cars being of French manufacture. Fifty-three cars finished, the prize being secured by M. Sorel on a 40 h.p. De Dietrich. A team prize for the best team performance was won by the Brouhot cars, who took four places within the first ten names.

The 1905 Ardennes Circuit was, as usual, the scene of some very fine performances.

The circuit measured 75 miles, and for the purpose of this race had to be covered five times. The entries numbered nineteen, but the three Fiat cars entered by Italy, and the two Wolseley cars by England, withdrew motor-boat races on the Lake of Garda, with the race for the cup, which was styled the Florio Cup, after its donor, as a final.

The road race was held over the Brescia circuit, a triangular course of 507 kilometres. The majority of the entrants were, naturally, Italian, but the French racing men were also in evidence, Hémery, the winner of the Ardennes circuit, taking part in the race, and bringing several of his fellow-motorists. The result of the race was somewhat unexpected, for the Italian driver, Raggio, picked up rapidly towards the end of the contest, and came in winner.

Raggio drove an Itala car, and his time over the course was 4 hrs. 46 mins. 47 secs. an average of 62 m.p.h. The Itala firm also carried off the Salemi Cup, which was offered as a team prize.

The Continental cars were not, however, successful in every test abroad, for at the annual Chateau Thierry Hill Climb in October, 1905, Clifford Earp, on a . 6-cylinder Napier car, secured the first place. The distance this year was altered to I kilometre in place of the previous mile; the gradient is I in IO, and the regulations necessitate a standing start. The Napier car ascended this incline in 38 secs.

Again, at the Dourdan speed trials, the Napier driven by Earp made the best time in its class, covering a flying kilometre in 25% secs., though this running did not come up to his performance on the track in England at Blackpool and Brighton.

The big racing event in America in 1905 was the second international race for the Vanderbilt Cup. The contest was run over the Long Island circuit, specially prepared, passing through the estate of Mr. Vanderbilt, the donor of the cup. The number of entries received from American firms necessitated an eliminating race, and this took place a few weeks before the race. The test was held over the same course, 2814 miles in length, but was only covered four times, whereas in the actual race the laps were ten in number, making a total of 2822 miles. Five cars from each competing country formed the team. England was not represented, while France's representative team consisted of a Panhard (Heath), Renault (Szisz), two Darracqs (Hémery and Wagner), and a De Dietrich driven by Duray. The Italian team were all Fiat cars, driven by Lancia, Nazzaro, Cedrino, Sartori, and Charolet. The well-known racing men, Jenatzy and Foxhall Keene, were amongst the German team. A keen struggle was waged through the between Heath (Panhard) and Hémery (Darracq), the latter coming in victor, Heath being only 3 mins. 32 secs. behind, thus securing a double victory for the French cars on American ground. A locomobile car driven by Tracy, one of the American team, secured third place. Hémery's average was at the rate of 63 m.p.h. race Efforts to reduce records further resulted in some fast running by American cars on the Ormond Daytona track in the early part of 1906. A flying kilometre was said to have been covered in 18 secs. by Marriott on a Stanley steam car, which works out at a speed of 122.2 m.p.h., and the mile with standing start was accomplished in secs. (127.5 m.p.h.). These records have since been challenged as to their 28 accuracy.

In July some very interesting events took place in England on the Brighton track, when Clifford Earp, on a 90-h.p. Napier, covered the flying kilometre in 23 secs.

The two-mile track at Blackpool also witnessed some very fine performances when [AUTOMOBILES Earp attained a speed of 1042 miles an hour when covering a flying kilometre, and thus tied with the world's record achieved by Baras on a Darracq car at Ostend. 1906. In connection with the Milan Automobile Exhibition in the early part of the year, a contest was held which opened the Continental events for the year. The Coupe d'Or presented by the city of Milan, a trophy from the King of Italy, and numerous cash prizes, produced a big entry list. The itinerary covered the best roads in Italy, and was run for eleven days, the distance measuring some 3,867 kilometres.

Fifty-one cars started, eleven Italian firms competing, four French, three German, two English. Owing to the dangerous and steep nature of many of the roads traversed, numerous cars were put out of running by overturning and other accidents. The Gold Cup was won by a Fiat car, Lancia, the renowned Italian driver, at the wheel. The two English Napier cars competing took sixth and seventh prizes.

The race for the Targo Florio, which took place on May 6th over a mountain course in Sicily, was also gained by an Itala car, driven by Cagno.

The Hon. C. S. Rolls also in May ran one of the small four-cylindered 20-h.p.

Rolls-Royce cars from Monte Carlo to London, a distance of 771 miles, in 28 hrs. 14 mins., thus beating Mr. Jarrott's previous record of 31 hrs. 35 mins.

The Ardennes Race for 1906 had an entrance list of twenty-eight vehicles. The course covered was 375 miles, and after an exciting struggle the first prize was won by Duray on a De Dietrich car in 5 hrs. 38 mins. 39 secs. It was noticeable that at this meeting all the competitors had provided their cars for the first time with detachable wheels and rims, thus obviating delay for tyre punctures.

Provincial clubs held numerous hill climbs and speed tests during the summer, and amongst them may be mentioned flat racing on Saltburn beach, organised by the Yorkshire Club, when the 100-h.p. Darracq car driven by Mr. Wright attained a speed of 962 miles an hour. 1906. Dourdan, the scene of many former speed trials, this year witnessed some marvellous speeds. Mr. Lee Guinness, on his 200-h.p. Darracq, covered a flying kilometre in 20 secs., a speed of over 112 miles an hour, beating the European record up to that date.

As regards the Vanderbilt Cup Race in 1906, the American team selected after an eliminating race on the track consisted of the following five cars: 120-h.p. Pope AUTOMOBILES] Toledo, 115-h.p. Thomas, 110-h.p. Locomobile, 70-h.p. Christie, and 60-h.p. Haynes. The European contingent was a formidable one, representing some of the finest cars and drivers of the day, and consequently an exciting contest was witnessed on the Long Island track. 2971/4 miles was the distance over which the race was run, the victory falling to Wagner (France) on a 100-h.p.

Darracq car. His time was 4 hrs. 50 mins.

IO secs., an average speed of 61.43 m.p.h., an extraordinarily fine performance considering the nature of the track. Lancia, on a Fiat (Italian) car, came in second, being 3 mins. behind the time of the winner. of the firms taking part. The race extended over two days; the course, 64½ miles in length, was covered six times each day, a total of 774 miles. French manufacturers accounted for all the entries but nine, and it was left to a Frenchman, Szisz, on a Renault, to carry off the coveted prize.

Eleven cars finished the arduous two days' running.

Professor Von Herkomer's Trophy contest was run in June, and extended over a long route, 1,660 kilometres in length, including a hill climb up the Semmering Pass, near Vienna, and closing with a speed trial in the Forstenrieder Park, near Munich. Pro- How A LOW CHASSIS AFFECTS THE DUST ON AN UNPREPARED ROAD. Despite the utmost precaution for safety taken by the Cup Commission, the race was somewhat marred by several accidents to spectators, the public crowding on the course and hindering the running of the racing cars. were On November 14th an interesting dinner took place in London, at which gathered most of the pioneers of the motoring industry to celebrate the first decade since the passing of the Light Locomotives Act, and the repealing of the "Red Flag Act."

The French Grand Prix of 1906 made the racing world all agog with excitement over the Sarth circuit near Le Mans. Thirtyfour competitors entered for the struggle, which was a fierce one, and on which it was felt much of the success of future motor racing depended, and the reputation fessor Von Herkomer, when initiating the contest, had intended that it should primarily encourage amateurs and be a trial for genuine touring cars. Many of the foreign cars entered for the 1906 contest did not fulfil these conditions at all; racing cars with aluminium seats, devoid of steps and doors in many cases, could hardly be termed touring cars. The starters from Frankfort to Munich numbered 140 for the first day's run, but tyre troubles and disregard for the regulations against excessive speed saw the number somewhat diminished before Munich was reached. Almost every country interested in, or building, motorcars was represented. Prince Henry of Prussia, an enthusiastic motorist, participated as a competitor in the contest. The second day's run was from Munich to Linz, and the third on to Vienna, where the cars remained a day on exhibition. The next run, to Klagenfurt, included the somewhat trying contest on the Semmering Pass, where hill-climbing trials were undertaken.

The fifth day brought the competitors to Innsbruck over the Brenner Pass, and the sixth witnessed the return to Munich, and a speed trial of 5½ kilometres as a final to the tour. The best speed in these trials was attained by Herr Poege, on a 60-h.p.

Mercédès, who covered the distance in 3 mins. 8 secs. The winner of the 1906 contest was Dr. Stoess, on a small car, who drove an 18-h.p. Horch. English Daimler cars were well represented, but in most cases English competitors did not do remarkably well. Mrs. Manville, an English lady, who the year before had won a prize in this contest, was again successful, and Lord [AUTOMOBILES journeyed from Spa, viâ Nimègne, Cologne, Luxembourg, Reims, to Dinant. The survivors of this trial were then entered for a 300-miles speed race. Twenty-nine vehicles started, seventeen survived the road test, and the speed trial was finally won by Rigolly on a Gobron car.

The desirability of removing motor-car racing and testing from the roads, and the difficulty of securing roads in private parks where the legal speed of 20 miles an hour could be exceeded without danger of police interference made the construction of a special track for racing purposes very desirable. Several projects had been put forward in 1905-6, but it was left to Mr. and Mrs. Locke King, both enthusiastic motorists, to materialise the idea. In the autumn of 1906, after consulting a good many of 9 A BROOKLANDS MEETING IN 1909.

Montagu won a gold medal. Professor Von Herkomer expressed dissatisfaction at the way in which the regulations had been ignored, and types of cars permitted to enter which did not answer the required description.

The race on the Ardennes circuit in 1906 saw nearly all the competing cars fitted with movable rims, which subsequently became general in all racing cars. Twentyone cars started in the race, all of them French with the exception of four Mercédès. The race was a very open one, and after some exciting running Duray, on a De Dietrich car came in winner, covering the course in 5 hrs. 38 mins. 39 secs., thus beating the winner of the previous year, Hemery, by 19 mins. 53 secs., the average speed attained being 66 m.p.h. 1 A somewhat drastic yet interesting test was made at the end of July in the Belgian Criterium. The competing cars had to undergo a 585-miles trial on the roads, and their motoring friends who were acquainted with the automobile industry, they decided to lay down a track which could be used for racing, and to form a club at Brooklands, their own property near Weybridge. The need for such a course had long been felt in the motoring world, not only from a sporting point of view, but as a testingground for cars, high racing speeds being obviously out of place on the public roads.

Mr. Locke King's enterprise and courage in thus coming forward with the offer to undertake this colossal venture for the benefit of automobilism have earned him the thanks and gratitude of all the motoring world. The track is just over three miles in length, elliptic in form, with a straight mile at one end for the purpose of record running. The banking at the corners in some cases amounts to 28 ft. in height, while the track is 100 ft. wide, and the grounds, pavilions, &c., provide accommodation for over 100,000 people to witness the proceed- AUTOMOBILES] ings. Quite recently a test hill has been built in the grounds, forming a valuable addition to the track. In order to reduce danger to the public to a minimum, the track is railed off, and subways were built to avoid crossing from the outside to the inner ring. Altogether the cost of construction was somewhere about £150,000. The inaugural meet of motorists took place on June 17th, 1907, and the first person to use the Brooklands track publicly was the famous British motorist, Mr. S. F. Edge, who accomplished a run of 24 consecutive hours on one of the standard 60-h.p. Napier cars. This car, steered by Mr. Edge, ran from 6 o'clock on Friday evening, June 28th, to 6 o'clock on the evening of the 29th, and covered 1,581 miles 1,310 yards, aver- Grand Prix for 1907 was run over the Dieppe course, the circuit extending a little over 50 miles, which was covered ten times. A race for the cup presented by the Commission Sportive of France was run at the same time, the starters in the latter event leaving two hours after the Grand Prix competitors. This race, the second Grand Prix, with its thirty-six starters representing five nations, was a brilliant event. The Targo Florio and the Grand Prix contests were now about the only two races left which brought motorists of all nations together. The victory after a hardly-fought contest went to Nazzaro on a Fiat car, who achieved the wonderful average speed of 71 m.p.h. over the whole circuit. The French manufacturers, who BROOKLANDS. RACE FOR THE MONTAGU CUP, JULY, 1909. aging nearly 66 miles throughout the whole 24 hours. At night the course was illuminated. Mr. Edge was paced by two other Napier cars, which, however, ran under the charge of two drivers apiece. The fastest hour of this huge run was the fourteenth, when he covered 72 miles 150 yards. In order to obviate tyre trouble and subsequent delays, the cars were fitted with detachable wire wheels, which were quickly changed. In one instance a wheel was removed and another fitted within 24 secs. Special petrol tanks holding 50 gallons were fitted, so replenishment took but little time.

The opening race meeting took place on July 6th, 1907, a record muster of spectators' cars being seen in the enclosure. had, of course, entered the largest number of cars, had the satisfaction of seeing eight French cars finish in the first ten.

The third and last contest for the Herkomer Trophy was run in June, 1907. The assembly of cars, both competitors' and those of witnessing motorists, was one of the largest on record; 161 cars competed for the trophy; Germany had the largest representation, numbering III, Italy 23, France 14, Belgium 8, England 3, and Switzerland 2. Four lady competitors also took part. The itinerary covered six days' running with a speed trial in the Forstenriede Park as in previous years. In this speed trial the highest number of marks was gained by Dr. R. Stoess on a Hotch Throughout the summer various race meet-car, who had won the trophy before in 1906. ings were held under the auspices of the Royal Automobile Club, and in the following year, 1908, many interesting experiments of a technical and scientific nature were carried out on the track.

The trophy was eventually gained by Herr Ladenburg (who also gained first place for the contest in 1905), whose Benz car was driven by Fritz Erle. The next event was the first international race for the Kaiserpreis, a cup presented by the Kaiser for a race between cars whose cylinder volume was limited to eight litres. The race was run on the Homburg route, and extended over two days. The first day two laps only [AUTOMOBILES cuit, a distance of 188 miles. The winner of the trophy, styled the Coupe des Voiturettes, was Naudin, on a Sizaire-Naudin The big contest for the Targa Florio took place in April in Sicily. The circuit, car. 6 キ O'GORMAN TROPHY, BROOKLANDS, 1909. were run, and as soon as the first twenty cars in each heat had finished the circuit, the contest was stopped, as the finished twenty were selected as starters for the actual race. On the second day the circuit (75 miles) was covered four times. The Kaiser was present throughout the contest, and presented his cup to the winner, Nazzaro, on a Fiat car. Thus Italy again won laurels in the automobile world. a Long-distance tests became more numerous. Among those for this year was the contest from Moscow to St. Petersburg, a distance of 646 kilometres, which was won by Duray on a 60-h.p. De Dietrich car.

The Paris to Peking Race aroused much enthusiasm and certain amount of sceptical criticism from those not fully acquainted with the capabilities of the modern motor-car. The difficulties encountered over an unknown route of 8,000 miles were enormous, yet most of the cars came through, and the first to reach Paris was Prince Scipione Borghese on an Itala car. This famous car and driver had crossed the much dreaded Gobi Desert in three days.

Italian meetings for 1907 opened with a race for small cars over the Sicilian cirwhich had to be covered three times, measured 93 miles, and contained no less than 1,000 corners, many of them steep and sharp turns. This was won by Nazzaro on a Fiat car.

Lambeth Public Libraries The Tourist Trophy competition was held, as formerly, in the Isle of Man, the petrol consumption again being taken into consideration. The trophy was won by a 20-h.p. Rover car. The "Graphic" Trophy Race which followed went to Mr. J. E.

Hutton, who drove his 70-h.p. Berliet over the course (2 miles 3 furlongs) in 3 mins. 40% secs. 2 The 1907 meeting of the Ardennes circuit was run on three days, the first race, run under similar conditions as the Kaiserpreis, was gained by Mr. Moore Brabazon on a Minerva car; the second, under a formula similar to that drawn up for the Grand Prix event, was won by Baron de Caters on a Mercédès car after a hardlyfought contest with Mr. Lee Guinness's Minerva.

A twenty-four hours' contest was held in America, in which a 60-h.p. Thomas car covered 997 miles. The record fell short of Mr. Edge's achievement on the Brooklands track by 584 miles. AUTOMOBILES] During the Brescia race meeting in September, an Itala car again secured the Florio Cup. Minoia, on an Isotta-Fraschini car, covered the 305-mile course in 4 hrs. 39 mins. 53 secs. The following day saw another Italian victory, Cagno, on an Itala car, winning the Coupe de Vitesse. Hillclimbing contests on the Continent were very numerous; almost every week-end throughout the summer witnessed one if not more of these ever-popular tests. At the annual test on Gaillon Hill, Newton, an English driver, on a go-h.p. Napier, made the speed ascent in 26 secs. 3 1908. February, 1908, saw the departure of the competitors in the New York-Paris Race, a tour practically round the world.

The cars acquitted themselves well, and the Zust, steered by the Italian, Antonio Scarfoglio, made a remarkable journey. Italy again won laurels in the American track race, a Fiat car, driven by Cedrenio, winning the 100 Miles Race. The cup presented by the Automobile Club of America was also carried off by Cedrenio. The one mile flying start was covered in 35 secs. by the winning car.

The Briarcliffe Trophy, another American prize, also went to Italy, being gained by an Isotta-Fraschini car. The Targa Florio Race took place in Palermo. Here, again, Trophy contest; 130 competitors entered for this trial, in which the highest marks were won by Fritz Erle on a Benz, the winner of the last Herkomer competition. a The Grand Prix of France was again competed for on the Dieppe circuit. Fortyseven entrants started, resulting in thoroughly good sporting race. The prize was gained by Lautenschlager, on a Mercédès car, who covered the 470 miles in 6 hrs. 55 mins. 43 secs.

The preceding race for small cars was won by Guyot with a Delage car, a very fine performance for a small voiturette type of car. Ballot, on a Brasier car, beat the previous year's record on Gaillon Hill by 2 sec. The Vanderbilt Cup, competed for on the Long Island track, was won by an American Locomobile car. The race for the American Grand Prize, which took place in November, was won by Wagner on a Fiat car, who covered the 397 miles in 6 hrs. IO mins. 47 secs.

The Bologna race meeting resulted in a large entry list for both the Florio Cup and the Bologna trophy. The victorious Nazzaro again carried off the Florio Cup, while Porporato, on a Berliet car, became possessor of the Targa Bologna. During some speed tests made in France on a course between Salon and Arles, a Brasier THE MOTOR SLEDGE SPECIALLY BUILT FOR THE 1910 ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION BY THE WOLSELEY CAR AND TOOL MANUFACTURING CO. victory went to Italy. The St. Petersburg- Moscow Race at the end of May, 1908, was won by a Benz car.

Germany had instituted a tour called the Prince Henry contest, after the donor of the prize, which took the place of the Herkomer car driven by Bablot attained a speed of over 104 miles an hour.

Up to the year 1907 the Automobile Club and the Motor Union had more or less worked together as two affiliated bodies, but as the more democratic body, the Motor 66 Union, increased in number, the official staff, its leaders, and a certain number of its members began to resent the supervision of the Club, complaining that their efforts were more often than not restricted, while the Club had on more than one occasion to take exception to the independent tone and action of its presumed allied body. The result of the strained relations was the cancelling of the agreement between the two bodies, and there arose much excitement in the British motoring world, especially amongst provincial club members, as to which body they should join. It was felt that such disruptions and quarrels amongst the leading bodies were not beneficial to the movement. The Automobile Club, which in the previous March had received the King's permission to use the prefix Royal," had a membership of some 3,500, while the Motor Union, with its more democratic class of member and cheaper subscription, numbered 4,681 at the time of the severance from the parent body. A summary of the provincial clubs all over the country showed a list of 10,432 members.

The outcome of the cancelling of the agreement between the two bodies resulted in the formation by the R.A.C. of a scheme for associate members, whereby provincial clubs could be associated to the parent body and enjoy many of its privileges, such as legal advice, the service of the engineering department, the right to participate in the open competitions and trials organised by the parent body, and the granting of the triptyque for foreign travelling. It was settled that the associated bodies should pay to the R.A.C. a capitation fee of 5s. per head, and the members were styled R.A.C. associates. The larger and more important bodies, such as the Scottish and Irish Automobile Clubs, and the Ladies' Automobile Club at once threw in their lot with the R.A.C., though many clubs decided to be affiliated to both bodies for the remainder of the year 1908.

The International Touring Car Trial, 1908, took the form of a test of 2,000 miles' running on the road, with a race of 200 miles as a finish on the Brooklands track.

Though not a road race, these reliability tests, organised by the Club, have tended in all instances to teach useful lessons in reliability and economy to the manufacturers. The test was run in this case in conjunction with the Scottish Reliability Trials, an annual contest organised by the Scottish Automobile Club.

The race termed the "Four Inch Race" was organised for competing cars of certain type, fitted with four cylinders, [AUTOMOBILES the rating of which should not exceed 25.6 h.p., with bore not exceeding 4 ins. The distance covered in the race was about 300 miles. The British cars, which were naturally in the majority, had to meet several well-known makes of Continental cars on the course. Belgium, France, Italy, and Switzerland were all represented in this year's Manx Race. Some excellent running was made on the nine laps of the course, and the winner, Mr. J. Watson, on a Hutton car built by Messrs. Napier & Co., covered the course in 6 hrs. 43 mins. 5 secs. next two cars to pass the winning-post were of French manufacture, two Darracqs, which were only some 2 and 5 mins. behind the winner.

The Amongst the many arduous trials undertaken by motor-cars must be mentioned the New York-Paris contest, which took place in 1908. Several European cars were entered in this trial, amongst them being a De Dion driven by M. Bourcier de Saint Shaffray; a Motorbloc, driven by M. Godard, who steered the Spyker car in the Peking-Paris event; a Zust car, steered by Prince Scarfoglio; a small Sizaire Naudin, a Werner car, which, though not competing, was making an independent journey between the two points; a Protos car entered by a German firm; and three American machines-a Thomas, Maxwell, and Hol-Jan. 45 1909. The Florida race meeting, 1909, saw many records broken. The Five Miles Open Race was won by a Benz car in 2 mins. secs. The Five Miles Motor-Cycle Race also resulted in the amateur record being broken, as the distance was covered in 3 mins. 30 secs. The hour record test for motor-cycles resulted in the covering of 69 miles in 58 mins. 25 secs. In March of this year Leon Théry, the famous French racer, died, and France lost one of her best drivers. After having been closed as the scene of a contest since 1903, La Turbie Hill was again opened in April, and some excellent results were attained. Big road racers were growing fewer, and entries even for worldwide-known events were not so numerous, and it was evident to all in the motoring world that the days of big motor road racing were on the wane. The Targa Florio had this year only twenty entries.

The chief French motor-car firms had signed an agreement not to race, so the entrants were all amateurs. Only one round of the circuit was covered, a distance of about 95 miles. The race was keenly contested, and was won by an Itala car, driven by Baron Crieppa. The fifth contest for the Coupe des Voiturettes was run AUTOMOBILES] over the Boulogne circuit in June, and some very fine running by the smaller type of racing cars was seen. The winner, on a Peugeot car, averaged over 50 miles an hour throughout the contest.

Having given the chief racing events in the motoring world, and thus demonstrated the great advancement made in the modern motor-car, we will now give a few instances to show how the holding of these race meetings has tended to improve the construction and reliability of the car. Just as horseracing has tended to the production of an animal capable of galloping at great speed, strong in limb, light in weight, and with great staying powers, so has the manufacadopted for general use in gas and petrol engines that the internal combustion engine, acting by means of a series of explosions, became a practical machine. To deal with the small number of motor-cars which are still propelled by steam, it need only be remarked that the "flash" boiler was really the important invention in this case, as it enabled a great deal of steam to be raised from very small weight of water-tube boiler and quantity of water, and, owing to the adoption of the principle of the thermostat, automatic regulation according to pressure became possible. Otherwise the steam engine itself, which propels the majority of steam motor vehicles to-day, differs very A FOUR-CYLINDER NOISELESS NAPIER, SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR COLONIAL USE. turer of a car in endeavouring to beat his competitors turned his attention to the production of vehicles capable not only of high speed, but of great reliability. - MECHANICAL. The Mechanical Development of the Motor Engine.- As regards the development of the mechanical side of the motor-car, a too technical description would be out of place here, but some facts will be set out which will give a general idea of the lines on which this development proceeded. First of all, it must be remembered that the early steam carriages of Hancock, Gurney, and others to some extent laid the foundation for mechanical road propulsion, though, of course, it was not till what is called the Otto cycle was found out and slightly from any other steam engine, except that in some cases it is fitted with only single-, not double-acting valves. As regards electric cars, these have not shown much progress except in the matter of body work, springs, chassis, &c. The storage battery of to-day is not much better either in efficiency or weight compared with the accumulators of ten or twenty years ago.

It is always being announced that Mr.

Edison, of America, has at last invented a perfect battery. But so far his discoveries are confined to newspaper rumours, and the perfect battery usable under ordinary conditions has not yet been seen. We will now deal with the internal combustion engine, which propels probably something like 98 per cent. of the motorcars in use to-day. As already mentioned, the principle of the Otto cycle was first fully developed at the hands of Gottlieb Daimler.

It was in 1884 that he patented, after a series of valuable experiments, a small gasengine which was made to run at a comparatively high speed, the ignition being supplemented by a tube called the ignition tube or priming cap, with which he started the engine until the cylinder and the surrounding metal were sufficiently warm to vaporise the hydrocarbon and cause a succession of explosions at the right moment. The explosions of an explosive engine can well be likened to a series of hammer blows, and a heavy flywheel was necessary to take up the force produced and to give more or less regular motion. Later on, about 1898, the form of ignition began to change, and an electric spark was used to ignite the charge, the spark being timed by a contactbreaker in which metal pieces alternated with fibre or vulcanite. By the alteration of the position of these, the spark was made to occur at different periods, either early or late, during the stroke of the piston. The inherent disadvantage of the Otto cycle may best be described by saying that only one movement in four of the piston is power-producing. To describe the cycle, first of all we will assume that the explosion has just taken place in the cylinder, driving the piston down to its lowest point.

Immediately this point is reached, the exhaust valve operated by the cam shaft opens, and the exhaust gases escape into the open air during the time when the piston is rising from its lowest to the highest point; on this being reached, the exhaust valve is closed automatically, and the downward or suction stroke begins. The mixture, as it is called that is, the charge of fresh air mixed with hydrocarbon vapours-is drawn in through a valve which up till lately was opened owing to the vacuum created by the downward stroke of the piston. Nowadays, however, both inlet and exhaust valves are operated by rods worked from the cam shaft. The piston thus having reached the lowest point, and the cylinder now being filled with hydrocarbon vapours, and all valves being closed, the piston begins to rise again, and compresses the vapours till the maximum of compression is reached, when the piston is once more at its highest point. It is then that the explosion is made to take place either by means of the ignition tube as formerly, or by an electric spark from the sparking plug, as in modern practice. The explosion thus created develops a pressure of anything between 200 and 400 lb. on the square inch, according to the previous compression and the richness [AUTOMOBILES of the gas, and the piston is again driven down to its lowest point, when the cycle, as mentioned in action No. I, begins over again. The inherent disadvantage of the Otto cycle, as will be observed, is that out of every four movements of the piston only one is a stroke which produces power.

This peculiarity necessitates the use of at least four cylinders before an even torque can be obtained. It will thus be seen that the use of a comparatively heavy flywheel is essential if any steadiness in running is to be obtained in an engine with less than four cylinders, or if the crank shaft is to revolve at any moderate speed. In the early engines, the cylinders were cooled by water-jackets placed around the cylinders, and others were air-cooled, having flanges made on the outside of the cylinder walls, and on the inlet and exhaust pockets, in order to enable the heat to radiate freely into the outer atmosphere. It should be mentioned that the temperature developed at the moment of explosion is probably not less than 2,500° Fahr., and it will thus readily be seen what a great amount of superfluous heat has to be got rid of in order to prevent the working parts becoming dangerously hot and seizing, and thus stopping the engine.

It may also be mentioned, as showing how comparatively little effect air without a fan has even at its coldest temperature on the heat produced in non-water-cooled cylinders, that Sir Ernest Shackleton found in the car which he used on his recent South Polar expedition, fitted with a fanless aircooled engine, that even at a temperature of 30° below zero-that is, 62° of frost-the engine became uncomfortably hot, except when the vehicle was running against a strong wind. In the case of water-cooled engines, the general system adopted is that of a radiator consisting of some kind of gilled tubes running vertically or horizontally in a frame fixed in front of the engine. The water is made to flow through these by means of a circulating pump working off the cam shaft or crank shaft, and thus the water is kept moving and never allowed to reach the boiling point. By some experiments conducted by Mr. S. F.

Edge in 1908, it was ascertained that the best results are given by an explosive engine when the temperature of the water in the cylinder-jacket is not less than 140° Fahr., and does not exceed 180°. Below 140°, and above 180°, the engine was proved to lose power. The scientific reason for this has not yet been really well established, and it is not known whether it is due in the case of the higher temperature to the expansion of metal making certain moving AUTOMOBILES] parts do their duty with more difficulty and less efficiency, or whether at the lower temperature the loss of heat through the cylinder walls diminishes the force of the explosion. But these two explanations are given as being those most commonly accepted. As regards the design of the remaining parts of the explosive engine, the crank shaft and base or crank chamber does not differ from those in use in steam practice, excepting that the base chamber is virtually airtight, as many motor engines depend to a certain extent upon splash lubrication-that is, from the splashes of oil into which the end of the crank pin dips at every revolution. In the newer forms of engine, however, the crank chamber is practically dry, and the oil which circulates is collected in a sump below, and pumped by this again, generally about the middle of the chassis, and in modern practice the shaft continues, in the case of cars possessing a direct drive, right away to the bevel on the hind and propelling axle. In cases where the transmission is by means of chains, the gear-box contains the bevel-gear in connection with the counter-shaft, which operates the sprockets outside the chassis. Over these sprockets the chains run to another set of cogs fitted upon the hind wheels.

During the last few years the cardan shaft system that is, the system in which the live axle and cardan shaft is used, has gained much upon the other system of chain transmission, and probably in a few years, except for heavy vehicles, chain transmission will be a thing of the past. The number of gears vary from two or three AN ENGLISH 15 H.P. CHASSIS. A DAIMLER CAR FITTED WITH THE SILENT KNIGHT ENGINE. an automatic pump through all the work ing parts. This system is, of course, infinitely preferable to the somewhat crude system of oil splashing, and where it is adopted the offensive blue smoke noticeable behind some makes of motor-cars can never take place, and there is also an absence of the disagreeable smell as well from the parts which, under the older system, get over or not sufficiently lubricated. 100 Car Gear. Behind the cylinders and crank chamber, towards the rear of the vehicle, is generally placed the flywheel, weighing anything between 40 to lb. Attached to the back of this is usually placed the clutch or mechanism whereby the engine is engaged or disengaged from the gear, and by which, therefore, it is possible by the action of the foot pedal to prevent the propelling machinery from acting. The gear-case is placed behind in the case of small cars, to four or even five in the case of bigger and more powerful machines. Take a 30-h.p. car as the type of a car much used; the first speed will probably give at a thousand revolutions of the engine per minute about 8 miles per hour, the second speed about 16, the third 24, and the fourth about 32. Where a more powerful engine is employed, the variation may run more or less as follows: 10, 25, 40, 60. In cars where three speeds are employed it is usual to graduate the highest and intermediate speed more nearly together, rather than the lowest and intermediate. To give an example, the first speed in a small-powered car is, say, 5 miles per hour, the second speed may be 15, and the third 20 to 24. It is found in practice that this is more convenient in the case of small-powered cars, as it enables the gradients of an ordinary road to be over- M 2 come without using the lowest speed, unless an unusually steep hill is encountered. A diagram is given of a typical chassis, from which the above explanation of the mechanism of propulsion will be more readily understood.

Brakes. Another important point of the mechanism of motor-cars is the design and practice adopted with regard to brakes. So important were efficient brakes felt to be that even in the early days of the development the Local Government Board regulations stipulated that at least two efficient brakes should be provided, each capable of stopping the car independently of the other, and acting equally well in a forward and backward direction. In addition to this, it is a common practice with drivers, who drive with their brains alert, to utilise the resistance of compression in the engine when long downhill gradients have to be negotiated.

The use of the resistance of compression in the case of long descents in mountainous countries, such as in the Alps or Pyrenees, is almost essential, for when the road descends for a distance of IO miles or more, parts of which may exceed I in IO in steepness, there are no brakes which can be made, which, even if they are watercooled, will not practically get so hot as to lose their efficiency and involve the risk of trouble. The usual practice now in regard to brakes is to have two internal expanding brakes on drums on the hind or driving wheels. There are practical inventions on the market also by which the front wheels can also be braked. These brakes are usually worked by means of a handlever placed in such a position that the driver can easily operate them. The pedal, which, as a rule, is on the right-hand side of the clutch-pedal looking forward, generally operates the foot-brake, which is a circular band of soft or cast-iron surrounding a metal drum upon the cardan shaft, counter-shaft, or crank-shaft as the case may be. men- Double-acting Cylinders. In discussing motor-engines it should be tioned that probably there are many inventions in the direction of double-acting cylinders which will before long supersede those designed on the principle of the Otto cycle as it is at present understood.

Already in marine work there are several excellent double-acting cylinders in operation, and the only objection to their application to cars has hitherto been that they are somewhat more cumbersome and seem unable to withstand the continuous vibration which road travelling involves. In [AUTOMOBILES addition, too, there is the fact that more water is needed for cooling, and, therefore, more weight has to be carried, an inherent disadvantage for which there seems, so far, no remedy. The tendency to failure is also in this present stage of development greater.

But that a two-cycle engine will eventually displace the Otto cycle engine can hardly be doubted. a Valveless Engines. In the summer of 1908 the Daimler Co., of Coventry, adopted, after great many careful experiments, Mr. Charles Knight's valveless engine. The term valveless is perhaps hardly correct, for instead of the mushroom-shaped valves usually employed, fitted as they are with springs, and operated from the cam shaft by means of upright rods or rocking levers, Mr. Knight adopted two sliding sleeves fitted with ports, which were arranged to open and shut at the right moment to admit the explosive gases or to allow the exhaust to escape. Writing in August, 1909, it may be said that Mr.

Knight and the Daimler Co. have plainly proved their claim to have this engine reckoned as one of the most useful and interesting developments in the internal combustion engine, and, after a successful running on the road of some thousands of these cars, it has been proved that they are as practical as they are efficient and silent.

Six-cylinder Engines. It should also not be forgotten that from 1905 onwards several makers of first-class importance adopted, especially in their larger types of engines, the six-cylinder principle, thereby securing a wonderfully smooth-running and silent motor, resulting in better balance and a constant torque upon the cardan shaft. The two best-known A FRENCH SIX-CYLINDER ENGINE. makers of the six-cylinder engines have both of them produced a motor of such silence and flexibility that it is certainly equal, if not superior, to the steam engine.

Not only has it these admitted advantages, AUTOMOBILES] but, what is more important, the wear and tear upon the tyres and gears is proved to be infinitely less where the torque is even than in the case where the power is produced by a series of four instead of six hammer-like blows. This quality of smoothness in running and great flexibility undoubtedly cheapens the cost from the tyre point of view, which, after all, is the most important item in view of the expense of running a motor-car, and the extra cost of such an engine is to some extent, if not fully, recouped by this quality which it possesses.

Carburettors. Amongst recent inventions which seem to be leading to still further improvements may be mentioned the water-jacketed carburettor, thereby producing a more easy carburation of the hydrocarbon, and making it possible to use petroleum spirit of much higher gravity than was originally found possible. In old days surface carburettors, as they were called, were the rule, and the specific gravity of petroleum spirit or petrol, as it is commonly called, could not generally exceed with convenience .680.

In the early jet carburettor, in which a small jet of spirit was directed against a mushroom-like piece of metal, and sprayed against the incoming air, even petrol of a specific gravity of 700 and 720 was thought to be as heavy as could possibly be used with advantage. Nowadays, however, a specific gravity of 760 to 780 is common enough, and owing to the provisions of the Budget of 1909 fixing a duty on all petrol below .800, it is probable that before long the motor-car spirit used will be heavier than this. The increase also in the number of carburettors especially designed to vaporise petroleum perfectly which varies from .800 to .900, and benzol, a tar spirit, from .820 to 900, and other hydrocarbons, which are upwards of .800 specific gravity, will do much in this direction.

Tyres. No account of a modern motorcar would be quite complete without some brief description of the pneumatic tyre, which has been en so largely instrumental in making for smooth running, absence of noise, and smoothness of motion. It is generally known how John Dunlop in the early days conceived the idea of inflating a tube made of indiarubber inside a cover made of coarser and stouter rubber material, strengthened by layers of canvas, the covers being secured to the rim of the wheel by flanges which fitted into grooves specially designed for them. The pressure of the a air in the tube kept these flanges tight under every condition, and though safety-bolts were used in some cases and for the purpose of attaching and detaching the tyre, it has been proved that without any safety-bolts THE TYRES SPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR THE FIRST MOTOR CAR TAKEN ON A POLAR EXPEDITION. (From The Heart of the Antarctic, by Sir Ernest Shackleton, C.V.O.) at all a tyre will remain on so long as it is fully inflated with perfect safety within the rim of a properly flanged wheel. Many other makers at home and abroad have now adopted this principle, the master patent of which expired in 1905. Originally motorcar tyres were made in quite small sizes, a tyre of 3 ins. from the outside of the tread to the inner part of the rim being thought quite a big tyre, but gradually the size increased as the weight and power of motorcars also increased, and to-day, on the largest and most powerful cars, a 7-in. tyre is used (175 millimetres), while the standard sizes have now settled themselves down to 65, 90, 105, 120, and 135 millimetres measured from tread to inner side. The rubber and material used in the manufacture of these tyres is much better than it used to be, and it is not an uncommon thing now for a tyre fitted to a light car to run upwards of 5,000 miles before it needs retreading, and in some cases of the larger size, when proper care is exercised, the writer has known instances where tyres have run 8,000 to 9,000 and even 10,000 miles without causing any trouble, and then as retreaded tyres, have run yet another 2,000 or 3,000 miles further. con- Cost, &c. But, notwithstanding the great improvement in tyre manufacture, there is no doubt that tyres still stitute the greatest expense with regard to the running of a motor-car. Petrol can be calculated as varying from 1/4d. to Id. per mile; oil, grease, carbide, &c., from oth to th of a penny, while 이 tyres on the other hand vary from Id. to as high as 6d. in the case where a car is heavily loaded, high engine-power is used, and the driving is fast and over bad roads with loose and sharp metal. A table is here given to show the comparative cost of running of various makes of cars. The figures are taken from practical experience during the years 1906 and 1907 :- Car and H.P. [AUTOMOBILES work in other spheres. Not because the comparison would be odious (all such work has contributed to the advancement of learning and the service of civilisation), but because it is impossible. The record of that work contains many golden entries of triumphant achievement. Let it suffice that among the first of these the motor-car stands up.

EXAMPLES OF RUNNING COST COMPILED FROM ACTUAL EXPERIENCES. ... 8 h.p.

Singlecylinder.

IO h.p.

Four 15 h. p.

Four 24 h.p.

Four 24 h.p.

Four Cylinders.

Cylinders.

Cylinders.

Cylinders. 36 b.h.p.

Four Cylinders.

Landaulette Side entrance. Landaulette. Landaulette Body... ... ... ... ...

Weight ... ...

Country or town use By whom driven owner or driver Annual mileage Transmission Clutch ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Mechanism looked after by Private Owner.

Owner.

Two-seated. 9 cwt.

Country.

Tonneau. 4 seats. 18 cwt.

Both.

Paid driver. (doctor). 23 cwt.

Town.

Paid driver. 5 seats. (doctor). 30 cwt.

Country. 37 cwt. 40 cwt.

Country.

Both.

Private Paid driver.

Paid driver.

Owner.

Driver.

Driver.

Owner.

Owner.

Driver. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7,000 Live axle.

Metal. 6,000 9,000 5.000 Chains.

Live axle.

Chains. 5,000 Chains. 10,000 Chains.

Leather.

Leather.

Metal. ... ... ... ... ... £ S. d.

Rent ...

Repairs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Spare parts and renewals ...

Tyres ... ... ... ... ...

Driver's wages.. ... ... ...

Licences, taxes, club subscription, &c. ... ... ... ...

Sundries Petrol, grease, oil, carbide, &c.

O 18 15 Own stables.

Done at home. 8 12 14 6 None.

I 0 d. 17 16 3 Own stables.

Done at home. 2 14 7 23 6 4 71 IO o 5100 116 d. £ S. £ S. d. d. £ 52 18 21 16 2 10 14 8 8 3 12 25 8 2 89 2 o II 15 O ... ... ... ... ...

I 17 4 0 Insurance ... ... ... ... 7 IO O IO o O O 6 I o 3 21 2 5 Total .... ... ... ... 53 19 10 132 13 2 231 19 0 I £s. d. 38 16 9 Own stables.

Done at home.

None. 36 15 6 None.

O 13 14 0 5 II 7 3 18 0 O 7 O 112 17 1O 2 27 4 Own stables.

Done at home. 1 17 8 38 18 9 70 6 8 68 1 18 6 18 O O O 164 13 9 Leather. 00 £s. d. 67 15 5 50 Done at home. 6 12 I 105 16 4 I22 4 IO 122 O 56 597 19 I9 o o 382 4 3 91d. 1,000 0 0 Leather. s. d.

Cost per mile 18d. ... ... ... ... 5.3d. 6.1d.

Original price of car 210 00 ... ... 700 00 450 00 9055.40. 00 7.9d. 950 00 Depreciation :- Ist year one-third of value. 2nd year 25 per cent. of value.

I year old, 7000 4 years old, 523 6 8 I year old, 150 00 I year old, 301 13 4 3 years old, 693 13 4 I year old, 333 6 8 3rd year and after 15 per cent. of value.

Present value of car ... ... 140 0 0 176 13 4 300 00 603 6 8 256 6 8 666 13 4 These figures, if anything, err on the side of extravagance, and lower running costs are really possible in practice, especially in regard to the last four columns. It should also be remembered that per miles run, if many miles are run, the motor-car is cheaper than horse traction, which averages from 9d. to Is. a mile.

The Modern Motor: Introductory. If some comparisons are odious, others are impossible. I do not, therefore, attempt to compare the work of the inventor and the engineer in connection with the mechanically propelled road vehicle, with their The history of the development of the motor-vehicle, principally as expressed through public tests, and trials, and sporting contests, has been sufficiently set out elsewhere in this book. Nor is there need, even if the thing were practicable, to treat of the story of struggle and disappointment that almost inevitably accompanies early efforts to bring an idea to concrete expression. The inventor who has not been obliged to eat to surfeit of the bread of bitterness before his work came to fruition may account himself a fortunate fellow indeed. Normally, the condition is very much reversed. It is only a AUTOMOBILES] necessary to our present purpose to note that serious progress with the motor-vehicle did not commence until the advent of the internal combustion engine. The history of that progress is covered by a period well varying degrees to most other civilised countries. But not these only. The spots on the earth's crust possible to any vehicle, which have not been touched by the motorcar, are growing smaller by degrees and A FRENCH SIX-CYLINDER 35 H.P. PANHARD CHASSIS. within the life of the young man whose majority is to seek, and yet, so far as England is concerned, the motor-vehicle is clearing the streets of large towns of horsed traffic, it is one of the commonest objects of the countryside, and its utility, not only in private and public service work, but in commerce, is established beyond cavil. The same motive power is functionbeautifully less. A car accompanied the Shackleton Antarctic Expedition, and penetrated furthest south. Scarfoglio went round the world on a car. Prince Borghese adventured from Pekin to Paris through trackless wastes. Africa has been laid under tribute, and China, and Russia, and other lands of seeming impossibility. The car has taken passengers up mountain sides THE NEW 15 H.P. FOUR-CYLINDER NOISELESS NAPIER. ing to good purpose on the water, and it has to-day at least opened the wonderful possibility of aerial domination by human kind. that no horsed vehicle could touch. It has travelled at over two miles a minute, and it can crawl through congested areas at two miles an hour.

A Page of Wonder.What applies to For so brief a life, the results are England in this connection applies in amazing. Almost, it would seem now that 66 the world awaited the coming of the car, and hailed the advent gladly. That is not how it appealed to the motoring pioneer, I fear. He had much prejudice to overcome, and much frigid and calculated" -opposition! And some of it remains even to this last. But, considered historically, the extraordinary rapidity of the develop ment constitutes a wonder page in mechanical evolution. With that, however, we are not here to be concerned. Ours is the unornamental and merely useful task of endeavouring to explain something of the internal economy of the car, to lay bare the engine, the clutch, the gear-box, the propeller or cardan shaft, the differential mechanism on the live axle, through which the power generated in the engine is finally transmitted to the road [AUTOMOBILES functions of a differential or a clutch, or a magneto, or a carburettor, to keep that glossary before them. The purpose of each piece of mechanism will, of course, be explained as we go along, but for ready reference consult the glossary. Now, broadly speaking, and without going into unnecessary detail, we can divide self-propelled road vehicles into four classes, according to the type of motive power or power plant to which they owe their motion. Thus:- (a) Internal combustion (petrol engine). (b) Steam engine. (c) Electric accumulator and dynamo. (d) Petrol engine with dynamo and electric motor.

The last two systems are not of great interest. Whatever the future may have THE 12 H.P. ADLER CHASSIS.

A wheels, and so on. In short, we have to explain just why it is the wheels go round, and to do it, so far as possible, in language easily understood of the non-technical reader who is yet interested in discovering the underlying reasons of the movement of the car, and how it comes about that a man, sitting in the driver's seat, can, by depressing a pedal or moving a lever on the steering wheel, shoot away from the gait of a crawling horse cab to the speed of an express railway locomotive.

The Problem. The explanation is not so simple as it looks. It would be plain sailing enough if the reader happened to be familiar with the terminology of the technical person. He is not; and the difficulty is that technical terms are the only forms of expression open to me very often.

I have, however, appended a glossary of such terms, and would ask those readers who have any difficulty in following the in store for them, they have no general adoption to-day, and may be left out of the present reckoning. The steam engine calls for more attention, and as a reference to its principal characteristic will be helpful in the analysis of the petrol, internal combustion, car (which must claim chief consideration), I will make brief commentary here.

Steam Car Characteristics. The steam car possesses a steam generating plant (the boiler, &c.), and, in sequence, an engine and driving shaft connected with the back axle. A burner below the boiler heats the water until steam is generated. The steam is transferred to the cylinder by a simple mechanism, the volume being controlled by a throttle or admission valve. The pressure of the steam on the piston in the cylinder forces it down or up. The piston is connected with a crank shaft, which is revolved as the piston rises and falls. The crank AUTOMOBILES] shaft is attached to the driving shaft, which transmits the power to the back wheels through the back axle, and the vehicle moves.

That is, in a word, the order followed.

The point to be emphasised here, however, is that, at whatever speed the engine is turning that is, at whatever speed the piston is travelling up and down in the cylinder, whether it be one, two, three, or a thousand or more revolutions a minute, the engine is developing or giving off its full power. This is because the elasticity of the steam permits of the pressure generated in the boiler re-acting effectively and steadily on the piston through a wide range of speeds. The pressure can be kept constant, whether the admission valve be half closed or wide open, be the car speeding fast along the open road or labouring up the hill. That is the main reason why the steamer" has managed to maintain a fair popularity. It can develop the full power when most necessary, i.e., at low speeds. Consequently, it needs no gearbox, can dispense with such accessory fittings as clutches, side levers, and gears, and the engine cannot very well be stopped at the wrong moment by any lack of skill on the part of the driver. This reference, although so very brief, will assist in making clear the particular difference between the steam and the petrol car, and will show where the latter fails by comparison. 66 The Petrol Car: A Comparison. The power of the petrol car is derived from an engine which is rotated by the force of a series of explosions within the cylinder at intermittent periods. Such explosions, to be effective, have to be sharp and sudden, and, therefore, fall off in power and value as the speed of the engine decreases. The reason lies in the fact that an explosion is actually no more than the rapid burning of an inflammable gas. If it does not burn rapidly-that is, if the explosions in the cylinder do not follow one another quickly enough the engine will lose power.

This is particularly noticeable when the car is trying to climb a hill. As the steepness of the hill increases, the load or the weight of the car tends to pull the engine up or slow it, with a concomitant falling off in power at the very time when it is most needed. It is in this characteristic that the petrol car compares badly with the steam car, and makes it necessary to provide a clutch and gear-box whereby the engine revolutions are multiplied progressively according to the number of changespeed ratios employed. Changing gear, however, while it keeps the engine revolutions more constant and maintains power, means a sacrifice of car speed. It means that, although the explosions in the cylinder are kept rapid and the engine is turning at its best speed, the interposition of gear wheels has reduced the speed of the driving shaft that actually moves the car's road wheels.

And now we may proceed to analyse the petrol car under four heads: (1) Engine. (2) Transmission gear. (3) Under-frame or chassis. (4) Body. I propose to take these in turn and describe each of them with requisite minuteness, looking closely into detail, and discovering the raison d'être of the parts themselves.

Part I: Petrol Engine. - As a six-, four-, two-, or single-cylindered engine works on the same principle, it will be easier if we Inlet Valve Mixture L Water P Sparking mPlus B Piston Exhaust Valve A C Airt Petrol H' Cam D G' F IF G E K Exhaust take this latter type as the subject under review. It will be seen from the illustration (Fig. 1) that the engine includes a cylinder (A), within which the piston (B) moves, vertically, up and down. The piston is joined by the connecting rod (C) to the crank shaft (D). On the end of the crank shaft is a gear wheel (E), which meshes the two other wheels (F F'). These are mounted on the two shafts (G and G'). which possess cams or eccentrics (H H').

The function of the cams, when they are rotated by the engine shaft, is to lift, alternately, the inlet valve (I) and each exhaust valve (I'). A further reference to the parts of the engine shows us the vaporiser or carburettor (J), exhaust pipe (K), magneto (0), sparking plug (P), and water pipe (L).

There is nothing much more tiring to the untrained eye than a lettered drawing of a fairly intricate piece of machinery. At the same time there is no better way available to bring the parts of the mechanism clearly under notice. I think in this case the purposes of the parts will be fairly obvious if the diagram is referred to as the parts come under consideration.

Functions. Before the engine will work, it must have fuel. The fuel used almost exclusively is a spirit distilled from petroleum and called petrol. Benzol, alcohol, and ordinary paraffin are sometimes used, but a special carburettor is required in the case of the last two fuels, and the results secured from benzol are not uniformly satisfactory. As they are so little used, we need not consider them here. Petrol is our fuel. It vaporises easily, and, mixed with air in correct proportions (about 18 parts air and I part spirit), it forms a highly explosive "mixture." This "mixture" is made in the carburettor to be described later.

To follow the work taking place in the cylinder of the engine, it must be assumed that the tap between the petrol tank and the carburettor is open, and the electric switch is "on." Petrol flows from the tank to the carburettor, is mixed with air, and is then ready to be sucked into the cylinder.

The cycle of operations follows.

The piston (as shown in sketch) is at the top of its stroke, and the inlet valve (I) is open, pushed up by the cam (H).

The exhaust valve meanwhile remains closed. Revolve the crank shaft in the direction of the arrow, and the piston descends, sucking in a charge of vapour from the carburettor. By the time the piston has reached the bottom (approximately) of its stroke, the cam on the cam shaft has turned and released the spring of the inlet valve. The valve, therefore, closes, and the piston, uprising, compresses the charge imprisoned in the cylinder.

When the top of this up-stroke is reached, a spark, generated by the magneto, occurs at the sparking plug (P). This spark explodes the charge of compressed gas, and the expansion of the gas resulting from the explosion forces the piston downwards.

Now, as the piston nears the end of this down stroke, the cam (H') rises and lifts the exhaust valve off its seat, keeping it open while the piston, once more rising, ejects the spent gases out through the exhaust pipe (K). By the time the piston reaches the top of the stroke, the cylinder is cleared of the exploded charge, the exhaust valve released by the cam closes, the inlet valve opens, and the process is re- [AUTOMOBILES peated. This succinctly describes the functions which are expected to follow one another in very rapid succession-800 to 1,500 times a minute, perhaps.

A recapitulation shows us :- (Ist) Down stroke. Inlet valve open.

Exhaust valve closed. Piston descends, sucking. (2nd) Up stroke. Both valves closed.

Piston ascends, compressing.

Spark Occurs. (3rd) Down stroke. Both valves closed.

Piston forced down by explosion. (4th) Up stroke. Exhaust valve open.

Inlet valve closed. Piston ascends, expelling burnt gases. This is defined as the "Four Cycle " principle, and applies to nearly every engine in motor-car service to-day. We see from this that the stroke immediately following the explosion is the only power stroke in the cycle. We see that both valves are closed alternately for, altogether, one and a half, and open for only one-half, revolution (approximately). The speed of the cam shafts operating the valves must, therefore, be half that of the main crank shaft, because each valve only opens once (one revolution of the cam shaft), while the piston falls and rises twice (which means two revolutions of the crank shaft).

That is the reason why the " timing" wheels (F and F') on the cam shaft, which mesh with the wheel (E) on the main crank shaft, are called the "half-time gear."

I hope we are clear so far.

One other important point on the general principle of the petrol engine before we proceed to consider its details. As the ،، power" stroke only occurs once in four (two down and two up), some means must be devised to carry the piston over its other three strokes evenly. The flywheel is the means. Not only does the momentum imparted to the flywheel by the power stroke carry the piston up, down, and up again, but much of the shock which the explosion in the cylinder causes, and which, otherwise, would be distributed over the rest of the car is absorbed. Without the flywheel a single-cylindered engine particularly, would waste so much of the power generated by the explosion that the piston could never finish its cycle of operations at all.

Valves. Now for detail. The illustration shows clearly how the valves are arranged. This mushroom-headed valve is the most common type, and in practice gives little trouble. It is held firmly to its seating by the spring coiled round and attached to its stem. The spring ensures the valve AUTOMOBILES] shutting positively and quickly as soon as the cam descends. Between the valve stem and the cam a "tappit" translates the motions of the latter to the former. To insert the valve, and for the sake of accessibility, a screw cap is provided in the pocket" above the valve. 66 Sparking Plug. This is usually located above the inlet valve, or directly over the piston. It consists of a central metal stem, terminating in a point at its lower end, and insulated, by porcelain or mica, from the body which screws into the cylinder. The current (from the magneto or coil) is conducted on to the central stem down which it travels, and, jumping the small air-gap between the bottom point and the body, creates the exploding spark.

Carburettor. It is remarkable that this, the very lungs and heart of the car, should to-day be one of the least perfect of its parts. To the novice it is often a sphinxlike puzzle. It calls for a full consideration, therefore. A carburettor (see Fig. 2) usually consists of two compartments: (1) the float chamber, and (2) the mixing chamber. The former is cylindrical, and, at the bottom, is connected by a tube to the petrol tank.

Where the petrol enters the float chamber is a seating on to which a "needle" valve closes. Surrounding the needle, but separated from it, is the float. If the chamber is empty, and the float has nothing to float on, it of course descends. As it does so a simple lever lifts the needle out of the valve and the petrol flows in.

The float rises with the petrol until it reaches the requisite level, when the needle shuts down on its seating and stops the inflow. of petrol to squirt out. The size of the jet is so small that the petrol is broken up into particles which immediately vaporise and mix with the air which is being sucked up into the cylinder. The "mixture" is then duly compressed and exploded.

From the float chamber the petrol flows into the jet which is centrally located in an air-pipe. The level of the jet is slightly above that of the petrol in the float chamber, so that none can overflow. Above the jet, in the induction (air) pipe which leads to the engine, is the throttle valve, the function of which is to regulate the amount of mixed air and petrol upon which the speed of the engine depends.

Now, the level of petrol at the jet must be kept practically constant. Otherwise a sufficient quantity will not be sucked up when the inlet valve opens again. Our needle valve in the float chamber provides the solution. A certain quantity of fuel having been drawn from out of the float The Carburettor in Action. To explain the action of the carburettor, imagine the engine in motion. (The carburettor, of course, stops operating when the engine stops.) In the cycle of operations in the cylinder we saw that at every second down stroke of the piston the inlet valve is opened. The descending piston produces a suction on the air in the induction pipe.

This creates a slight vacuum in the air space round the jet, and causes a modicum Petrol Level Petrol Supply Needle Ne FLO AT 本 AIR JET TO ENGINE THROTTLE EXTRA AIR ريد chamber, the float descends automatically, opens the valve, and admits a further quantity of petrol, sufficient to restore the level at the jet.

All that is simple enough, but with the engine working at high speed, we meet with problems. The speed of the engine increases the vacuum in the air pipe, and after a certain point this gets so great that the air becomes attenuated, with a result that the proportion of petrol used is greater than it should be. Too rich a mixture not only spells waste, but trouble. First, it is not so powerful an explosive; and second, it tends to overheat the engine. Therefore, in many carburettors, an extra spring-closed air valve, which opens in proportion to the increased suck of the piston, is fitted. "Extra air valve" is, of course, a misnomer, since an engine does not require more air at high speeds, but only as much, proportionately, as at low speeds. We have to pardon misnomers of this sort very often.

The essentials of the carburettor are, therefore: (1) that it should embody means for providing a proper supply of fuel; (2) that it should deliver this as required by each stroke; (3) that the quality of the mixture should not vary. The latter is the stumbling block. The theoretically correct proportion is almost impossible of attainment, because a liquid (petrol) and a gas (air) will not obey the same physical laws.

The carburettor designer has to get as near the ideal as he can, taking into consideration the wide range of the car's speeds and loads. The nearer he gets, the greater the power developed per gallon of petrol.

Ignition. So much for the carburettor.

Now with regard to the magneto. The engine illustrated has been designed with magneto ignition-by far the most common form. Two systems of magneto ignition are made, "low tension" and "high tension." The former is rapidly losing favour, not because of any inherent defect, so much as because of the great improvement in the high tension-not because we love low tension the less, but because e we love high tension the more!

A low-tension magneto is merely an electricity generator. It consists of n-shaped hard steel "permanent" magnets, between the lower "poles" of which an "armature" is revolved by a suitable driving gear. What is an armature? A central spindle on which is built up a series of soft iron discs, which, in turn, are encircled with a winding of insulated copper wire. One end of this wire is "earthed" (i.e., joined) to the spindle itself, and the other to a collector ring, from which a contact "brush," as it is called, leads the generated current to the sparking plug.

Now this plug is of a totally different type from that used for the high-tension ignition. It consists of a mica insulated metal cover, on to which the magneto wire is joined. Inside the cylinder, and in contact with the metal core of the plug, is the end of a rocker arm, which passes out through a gas-tight gland in the cylinder wall, and is connected to a tappit rod, which extends down into contact with a cam on the "half time" shaft. When the engine revolves, the magneto armature is rotated and generates a current, which passes through the plug and rocker arm. As the "half-time" shaft is also in motion, the cam, at the proper moment, lifts the tappit rod and breaks the contact between the rocker arm and the plug in the cylinder.

As contact is broken, the spark occurs.

The main drawback to this system of ignition is the difficulty of maintaining a gas-tight joint at the gland where the rocker is introduced through the cylinder wall.

The high-tension magneto eliminates this defect. It is somewhat similar externally, having a magnet and a rotating armature. 66 [AUTOMOBILES The armature, however, in this type has two sets of wire coils. One of these (the low-tension coil) is joined in circuit with the mechanical contact breaker," situated at one end of the armature. The other (the high-tension coil) leads out through the carbon "brush" collector to the sparking-plug. If the engine be set in motion, the armature revolves, and generates a current in the low-tension coil. The instant contact is broken, the re-active effect sympathetic" high-tension current to surge through the secondary winding (the second wire coil), and a spark occurs at the plug. causes a ،، All that makes for hard reading to the compleat tyro, doubtless, but as I pointed out at the commencement, the language of simplicity or familiarity is often impossible in dealing with such subjects. Moreover, some of the questions likely to arise in connection with electrical subjects simply cannot be answered. We do not know why a sympathetic current is generated in the high-tension coil when contact is broken on the low-tension circuit. We only know it is, and must leave it at that.

One other point here. It is, of course, necessary that the low-tension circuit should be led through to the switch on the dashboard in front of the driver, so that when he wants to stop the engine he can switch off the current. Again it is vital that the relative positions of the engine timing gear, and the magneto contact breaking should be correct. Otherwise we would have the spark occurring at the wrong moment.

Obviously, with an engine turning at 1,000 revolutions a minute, the moment at which the spark occurs must be earlier than when the engine is only turning at 300 revolutions a minute. If this were not provided for, the piston, moving at a very high speed, would be well on its way down the cylinder before the explosion took place, and much power would be lost. On the other hand, if the spark were set for high speeds and the engine revolutions were reduced from 1,000 revolutions to 300, the spark would be occurring too early, and back-fires and all manner of mischief would result. Therefore, a hand operated-lever for varying the timing of the spark (i.e., the moment at which contact is broken) is usually provided on the steering wheel, or some other convenient position.

The modern high-tension magneto is wonderfully reliable, and, except for a very occasional drop of lubricating oil, requires little attention.

Lubricating System. The carburettor was referred to as the lungs and heart of AUTOMOBILES] the engine. Pursue the metaphor and the lubricating system is the blood of it. And the blood is the life. Machinery without oil is like life without liquid. Wipe out lubricants, and we make a mechanical cast back to the Stone Age or thereabouts.

To describe in detail every system of lubricating an engine would require a very large book. It is sufficient to say that the simplest is just a supply of oil which can gravitate through pipes to the necessary bearings, with a reservoir of oil in the crank case, into which the revolving engine crank plunges and so splashes the oil up and over the cylinder walls and the ends of the connecting rod. As alternative to this (the gravity feed system) we have (I) mechanical pump, driven by the engine; (2) hand pump; (3) exhaust gas pressure on the top of the oil in the (sealed) tank; (4) pressure on the oil by means of the circulating water. Every car manufacturer MOTOR I CYL. 2 CYL. 4 CYL. 6 CYL. air-draught (supplemented by a fan) cools the water, which then descends to the bottom, passes through the pump, and reenters the cylinder water-jacket. That is pump circulation.

The thermo-syphon cooling system dispenses with the pump, and depends on an "induced" circulation which naturally tends to occur through the local heating of the water around the cylinder, and the local cooling of it in the radiator. The homely saucepan of water provides a parallel. When it commences to boil, the water heated at the bottom of the saucepan rises and then circulates down the sides again. The thermo-syphon system has the virtue of simplicity, and, always provided that the designer has arranged his piping with adequate care and consideration for the governing theory, has much to commend it.

REPRESENTS POWER The Engine Summarised. That finishes 00000000 REPRESENTS NO POWER ဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝဝ 00000000000000000.000000000oodooooo00000 has his own particular fancy, and, with ordinary care, any of the systems will give good results. It is important to use an oil of a viscosity suited to the type of engine employed. The maker's directions generally good enough to prevent mistakes being made here. a are Engine Cooling. As the petrol motor is "heat engine," it is necessary to provide means for dissipating the accumulating heat generated by the explosions inside the cylinder. There are two ways in which this can be done: by air or by water radiation.

The former is in general use on motor cycles, and is exemplified also on a few American cars. But the usual and most efficient method is by water. Water cooling is effected, broadly speaking, in two ways:- (1) Pump circulation. (2) Thermo-syhpon.

FIG. 3.

And this is how it is done. Refer again for a moment to the sketch of the engine.

A space is provided in the cylinder casting through which a stream of water is maintained. The water passes up through the pipe (L) into the radiator, generally in front of the car, but sometimes on the front of the dashboard. Here the natural poo 10000 the detail of a single-cylindered engine. I have not dealt with the system of ignition known as the coil and accumulator, because, although still much in use, it is falling out of the firing line before the all-conquering high-tension magneto, and because its principle is so well known. On some cars both the H.T. magneto (occasionally the L.T. magneto) and the coil and accumulator systems are fitted, the latter in such cases being generally held in reserve in case of the failure of the former.

It only now remains to summarise the foregoing and to point out what differences exist between the single-cylindered engine with which we have been dealing, and the two-cylindered, the four, and the six. I will, then, endeavour to show just how the power generated by the engine is transmitted to the road wheels of the car. The single-cylinder engine, as I have explained, has these four strokes: (a) suction, (b) compression, (c) firing, (d) exhaust.

In the case of a "twin " engine, the two pistons are set at 180°, and the strokes occur relatively in this order :- Ist Cylinder, as in the single above. 2nd Cylinder: (d) exhaust, (a) suction, (b) compression, (c) firing-so that the power in the "twin" is developed intermittently, the explosions occurring one after the other at a space interval of 180°.

With a four-cylindered engine, however, we get an explosion regularly at each half revolution of the crank shaft, while with a six-cylindered engine the firing strokes overlap, one explosion taking place every time the crank shaft turns through an angle of 120°-that is, at every third of a revolution.

The chief advantage of a multi-cylindered engine is, of course, a greater evenness of running. Where, as in the case of the single cylinder, the flywheel's momentum alone has to be relied upon to turn the Starting Handie Fan Radiator Steering Rod Water Circulation Pipe Carburettor Steering Mechanism Dash-board Brake Levers [AUTOMOBILES The simple illustration (Fig. 3) will convey a very clear idea of the volume of power developed by singles, twins, fourcylinder, and six-cylinder engines during the four strokes in the complete cycle of operations.

Part II.: Transmission. - Practically every vehicle which possesses a petrol engine must needs have a transmission gear and a mechanical contrivance for varying the speed of the engine relative to that of the road wheels. The transmission gear is connected to the engine through a clutch, which, when in engagement, connects the engine and gears, and which, when thrown out of engagement, leaves the engine free Change Speed Lever Throttle & Ignition Levers Foot Brake Drum Side Brake Compensating Bar Differential A A Tyre Steering Pivot Front Axle Dumb Iron Magneto Clutch Pedal Exhaust Box Exhaust Valve Caps Inlet Valve Caps Water Circulation Pipe Axle Cap Silencer Gear Box Universal Joint Clutch & Flywheel Chassis Frainc engine three strokes out of four, greater or lesser shock is inevitable. That shock may be said to decrease (other things being equal) with the number of cylinders employed. The four-cylinder, with its power impetus being imparted at each half revolution of the crank shaft, is quite notably smooth in action, and is by far the commonest engine in use. When we get to the six-cylindered engine, we are in the realm of luxury.

At the same time it has to be remembered that an increase in the number of cylinders multiplies the liability to mishap and increases cost. But the reliability of the modern motor is quite wonderful, and the man who buys a four-cylinder car is not, therefore, buying trouble. In the sum of the running cost, the upkeep of the engine mechanism is one of the smallest items.

Spring Brake Drum Brake Rod Torque Tube Universal Joint to rotate without giving motion to the road wheels. If a petrol engine could start from rest by merely opening the throttle, and could do its work steadily from a standing start, the clutch could be dispensed with, but our engine's characteristics are such that, without being rotated at the commencement, it cannot get moving-excepting, of course, by "switch starting," which, however, is also dependent upon the engine being ،، free" before it can eventuate. a a The illustrations (Figs. 4 and 5) give us in plan and side view a typical British chassis, with a four-cylindered engine, cone clutch, sliding gears, shaft drive, and live axle. This will, I doubt not, suffice to initiate even the most uninformed into the why and the wherefore of those features most usually met with in the modern car. Each im- AUTOMOBILES] portant member or part has been carefully marked, so that by reference to the drawing any otherwise inexplicable phrase will become clear. Let us run through the lettered features as briefly as possible. a The Clutch. The clutch occupies position immediately between the engine and the gear-box. It consists of a female member (A) attached to, and constituting part of, the flywheel. The portion (B) is connected through a flexible joint (C) to the gear-box, and possesses a collar (D) against which the clutch pedal (E) can thrus when the driver desires to de-clutch (or take the clutch out) and leave the engine free.

The essentials of a clutch are: (I) Gradual engagement, in order to avoid undue shock through letting in the clutch which a car is subjected on the road are calculated to throw the engine out of line with the gear. This joint permits of these two (engine and gear) being, to a limited extent, out of alignment without ill-effect.

The Gear-box. In the necessarily brief comparison between the steam and petrol engines I gave something of an indication of the function of the gear-box. Since the internal combustion or petrol engine can only develop its full power when working at a normal speed, it becomes necessary to interpose some device between the engine and the road wheels (or the mechanism operating the road wheels) that will reduce the effect of the drag or tractive resistance of the car upon the engine under unfavourable conditions. That resistance is, for example, much greater when the car is just moving from a stationary position, or when C too quickly when the ratio of motion of the two members is different that is, when the two parts are revolving at different speeds. (2) Large contact surfaces, so that the slipping and frictional effects may not disintegrate the wearing faces too quickly.

There are several forms of clutches in use, each with its own good points: (1) Cone clutch, (2) multiple disc, (3) expanding, (4) metal plate. The cone clutch usually combines a leather surface to give the necessary gradation and ease of engagement, while the multiple disc, as its name implies, has, for a similar purpose, a quantity of metal plates, forced into close contact by a spring and running in oil. The expanding type is very similar in principle to a road wheel brake, and has much to recommend it, although it cannot be said to be very much used. The last type, the metal plate, as used on the De Dion and Rover cars, is notable for the little attention it needs once it is in adjustment. The flexible joint (C) is advisedly placed here, as the cross strains and twists to it is hill climbing, than it is when the car is running on the level at a good pace.

Obviously, it would be absurd to fix the gear, or speed relationship between the engine on its direct drive and the road wheels, at the point where the engine, turning at a speed of greatest efficiency, was only just moving the road wheels around. But, quite as obviously, some provision must be made for standing starts, hill climbing, and the like, where the conditions require a change in the speed relationship of engine and road wheels, in order that the extra resistance of the car and load on the engine may be overcome.

It is quite true that some engines are so well designed and constructed, and so adequately fed with correctly proportioned gas (due to proper mixing in the carburettor), that the range of power they can develop is often equal to wide changes of condition in running. So that, on some cars of my acquaintance, it is quite possible to start from the stationary position, climb hills, and develop a speed of nearly forty miles a an hour without once coming off the direct drive. This elasticity of power, or engine "flexibility," is one of the results that an automobile engineer is always striving for, out, whatever his measure of success, there are fairly sharp limits beyond which he cannot go. Sooner or later the conditions of road travel imperatively call for change in that speed relationship between engine and road wheels, and if the change is not wrought the motorist may look out for squalls in the sure and certain hope that they will arrive. The direct drive is, therefore, arbitrarily fixed at a point that allows the engine to revolve at its normal and most effective speed while propelling the car at the requisite rate along the road, and a change speed mechanism is provided to T S Q R Square Shaft To Cardan Shaft X Y W N 2 TO Engine enable the driver to keep his engine working sufficiently fast under varying circumstances. And its Contents. Let us, therefore, in consultation with Fig. 6, see what happens in this gear-box, remembering that in this case we have three speeds forward, and a reverse, the reverse, of course, enabling us to move the car backwards if required. In addition, there is a neutral position-that is, a position where the gear wheels which revolve shaft (X) are not in mesh at all, so that the engine is cut out from the propeller shaft, and all connection with the road wheels. If this neutral position were not provided, the driver, upon starting his engine up with the starting handle in front of the car, would find the vehicle coming at him. As a matter of fact, several serious accidents and some fatalities have resulted from the omission of the driver, when stopping his engine by switching off the current to put the lever that operates the change speed mechanism into neutral position.

Now. Start with shaft (Z) in Fig. 6.

This shaft is integral with the male portion of the clutch, and carries on its rear end, a gear wheel (Y). The end of the shaft is hollow, and acts as a bearing for shaft (X), which extends back and out of the gear-box, and is connected to the driving or cardan shaft. Shaft (X) is square in [AUTOMOBILES section, and has, slidably mounted on it, a twin gear-wheel (WV). Parallel to the shafts (Z and X) is a "lay" shaft (U) mounted on suitable bearings. This possesses four gear-wheels rigidly keyed to it. The front one (T) meshes with (Y), and the rear one meshes a small wheel (P) and forms part of the reverse system already referred to. The shaft (Z) can be rotated (by the engine), but will not turn the shaft (X) unless and until certain gear-wheels are in mesh. The lay shaft, however, will revolve idly, being moved by the pair of gears (Y and T).

Now slide the double gear (WV) to the left until (V) meshes (R), and we have the "low speed" because the rear shaft (X) is rotated, but at a very much slower speed than the engine, since the relative sizes of the gear-wheels reduce the speed.

Again, if the double gear be moved to the right until (W) meshes (S), as we have it in the illustration, we get the "second speed." In other words (Y) moves (T) which rotates (S), and therefore (W) has to revolve also.

In order to obtain the "top speed," the double gear (WV) is shifted further to the right until the "dog-clutch" (0) engages. In this position the two main shafts (Z) and (X) are positively locked Position together, giving a direct through drive, while the lay shaft merely rotates idly.

The reverse speed is obtained by sliding the double gear (WV) to the left, so that (V) meshes with the small wheel (P). A fork is used at (N) to operate the sliding gear, which, in turn, is operated by a hand lever at the side of the driver. 66 The "Gate" Change. -That finishes an ordinary three-speed gear-box, but the same principle is applied when four forward speeds are provided-four speeds being the maximum number obtainable. In another and more modern type of gear-box, however, we have what is known as the "selective" or gate" change gear. The illustration (Fig. 7) shows that in this type of gear-box (having three forward speeds) there are two separate gears, mounted slidably as before, but each with a separate fork, while the side lever is so arranged that it can select either, according to the change desired. A direct result of this plan is that a change can be effected from any one to any other speed, without running through the intermediate gears. The instant one pair of gears is unmeshed, the "neutral" position is found, and the engine is cut out from the road wheels and turns idly.

Another advantage, a constructional one, lies in the fact that it is possible with the AUTOMOBILES] selective gear-box to make the shafts much shorter, and, therefore, much more rigid.

I make no reference to the epicyclic type of gear change. It is passing out of use to-day, so that explanation of it, of necesesd.

FIG. 7. sity very long and very intricate, will be omitted.

The Cardan Shaft. So much for the gear-box and its contents. An understanding of the method followed can, unfortunately, only be obtained by concentration and some mental agony. Having once got a grip on it, however (the illustrations assisting), we may follow the drive by way of the 66 cardan " shaft-popularly, but erroneously, so called, after the alleged discoverer of the idea. This form of shaft constitutes about the best and simplest method of getting over a difficulty of transmitting power between two planes which do not coincide.

In its application to the motor-car it moreover provides the flexibility necessary between the gear-box shaft and the back axle pinion wheel, as these two members change their relative positions, due to the flexing of the car springs. The back end of the gear-box shaft is provided with a double swivelling block (or universal joint) to which is attached the propeller shaft extending to the axle; this combination is inclusively known as a cardan shaft. It is a notably reliable and neat system of transmission, and although it is responsible for the absorption of about 4 per cent. of the engine power, that disadvantage is insignificant by comparison with the shortcomings of the only practical alternative, the chain drive, with its noise and dirt and constant need for attention.

The Back Axle and Differential. The ordinary "live axle" is a very dark mystery indeed to the uninitiated. Not that its functions and contents are so very intricate, but because an amateur rarely gets an opportunity to what is inside the casing, and because, in order to understand, without the thing dismembered before him, he must have a certain grasp of techsee nical principles. I will endeavour to explain as simply as possible. It is noticeable that when a car is driven in a circle or round a corner the outer wheel has to travel a longer path than the inner.

If the axle were in one piece, with both road wheels joined to each end of a single shaft, clearly, either the inner or the outer wheel would be compelled to slip under such conditions. And that would be blue ruin to tyres and wheels, and would absorb an immense amount of power. It is necessary, therefore, to provide means whereby a compensating action can be embodied between the wheels. The mechanism by which it is accomplished is on an old principle, and, as applied ربع to motor-cars, has proved most efficient, rarely giving trouble. In order to be as comprehensive as possible, I give two illustrations, one (Fig. 8) being a (laudable) attempt to show, in diagram, the principle of the differential, and the other (Fig. 9) a presentation of the genuine article, revealing the method of carrying the gear on ball bearings inside the shell casing. The casing serves the double purpose of dust cover and oil bath.

Refer to Fig. 8. The road wheels (not shown) join on to the "live" axle (E E'), which carry between them the all-important balance gears. The cardan or propeller shaft (A) lies at right angles, and is provided on its rear end with a bevel pinion alternative, sometimes (B) (or, as a worm" gear), whose function is to engage with the large bevel gear (C) generally E B CARDAN SHAFT A DRIVE F H I E' known as the crown wheel. On this are mounted "planet" pinions (F F'), which, in turn, and in a prearranged way, mesh between the two bevel gear wheels (DD') which are fixed on to the axles (E E').

N 66 دو The Differential in Practice. If that is fairly clear, we can now look into the action of this combination of wheels and learn something of its many possibilities. pos We will suppose the device to be mounted on a car and power applied to the cardan shaft, so that the driving pinion (B) is turned. The result is that the crown wheel (C) rotates and carries the "planet" wheels (FF') round with it. Now, since the teeth on each side of these are in mesh with the two gears (D and D'), they compel the latter to rotate, and cause the shafts (E and E') to revolve also. The fact that they are held on each side by the gears (D and D') prevents them rotating on their own axes, and, consequently, to all intents and purposes (assuming the car to be steered in a straight line), they act merely as "dogs," and do not function as gears.

It is only when corners have to be negotiated that is, when one road wheel has to go faster or slower than the other, that their virtue as gears is indispensable.

Put the matter to the test of a simple experiment. Let us stop the car, raise one road wheel (say that on the left-hand side) from the ground, and start the engine again.

What happens? The driving pinion (B) turns the crown wheel (C), which commences to carry the planet pinions (Fand F') with it. The shaft (E) and its wheel (D) cannot move, and so the planet pinions (F and F') have to rotate on their own axles, and compel (D) and its shaft (E), as well as the road wheel, to revolve at twice the ordinary speed, as a matter of fact, that would be possible on the straight road.

That is an exaggerated example of the sort of action that takes place at curves and corners. The little planet pinions can [AUTOMOBILES balance one road wheel's speed against the other, and provide an absolutely positive and correct speed ratio for both.

Apart from its strict utility as a compensating device, the differential gear is invaluable as a side-slip minimiser. Supposing that the gear were dispensed with on a straight but greasy road, and for a moment one wheel can ca find no adhesion. The other wheel is compelled to take all the driving force, which would probably make it slip as well. But with a differential embodied, this is changed, because the instant one wheel loses grip, the power of the engine is proportioned between driving the gripping wheel and revolving the slipping wheel. So that no more, if as much, power is applied to that wheel which is gripping on the road than is applied to the slipping wheel.

So. As thoroughly as possible in the space available, we have traversed the engine and the transmission from A to Z, and all that is left to us is classifiable under the heads of chassis and body. Under "chassis" we may also treat the steering gear, braking system and control mechanism. All other details, regarding shape and design, generally, are moot points, and, therefore, no fit subject for present consideration.

Part III.: Chassis. - We owe much that is good on the car to the French, nor do we fail to perpetuate our recognition of the fact by the use of their nomenclature for things motor mechanical. The word "chassis " is an instance. We should have to delve deep into Webster to find the dissyllabic word that would indicate, "chassis " does, the assembled frame, wheels, springs, not to say the power plant and transmission. Much thought and more work have been devoted to the subject of chassis design than is usually credited, and it is deserving of more extended treatment than is here possible. as Springing. The chassis frame is the bedplate of the engine plant. It is constructed of steel, pressed to the requisite shape, and must possess a great margin of strength in order to withstand the buffeting it is subjected to on the road. The designer seeks, therefore, to ameliorate conditions by introducing springs between chassis frame and axle.

And here, incidentally, his best efforts have been taxed to their uttermost. A spring, if it is to provide easy riding at ordinary speed, must be long and very flexible. For high-speed work it must be much more rigid if it is to deal adequately with the increased road shocks. No single spring can conform to both conditions. Perforce we fall back upon a compromise, and accept AUTOMOBILES] a spring of an arbitrary length, strength, and resiliency.

Brakes.-Brakes can be conveniently dealt with next. And here we can record a fair unanimity of ideas. The side handbrake is usually designed to operate direct on the back wheels-brake bands gripping steel drums attached to the spokes of the wheels, and connected to the hand lever at the side of the driver. A spring device for the purpose of releasing the brake when hand pressure is removed is, of course, incorporated, and a ratchet "pawl" provided so that the brake pressure can be maintained as long as desired. A second brake acts on a drum fixed to the propeller shaft just behind the gear-box. It is pedal-applied, and has the advantage of being much more powerful than the side brake. A back reference to the diagram of the differential gear (Fig. 8) will show that the driving pinion wheel (B) is much smaller than the driven crown wheel (C)-so much so, indeed, that it requires between 32 to 42 pinion wheel revolutions to turn the crown wheel once. This establishes a huge leverage for the propeller shaft over the axle. A brake pressure of, say, 40 lb. applied to the shaft brake will, consequently, be equivalent to three or four times the same effort as applied direct, by the side brake, to the road wheels. At the same time, it will be observed that a brake applying constantly to the transmission shaft must throw an enormous strain upon mechanism designed primarily for other purposes. The tendency, therefore, toward front wheel braking is very marked, and it is at least likely that the system of to-morrow will involve brake application to all four road wheels direct.

The Steering Gear is a term connoting not only the hand wheel, but all interconnecting links, rods, and pivots also. Since a casual inspection of, say, the humble "taxi" will reveal the object of the latter, I will confine myself to a reference to that essential part of the mechanism which is contained at the base of the steering column.

With it is incorporated (see Fig. 10) a worm" wheel, the purpose of which is to engage and operate a toothed "quadrant." The quadrant is pivoted on a shaft protruding outside the casing, and taking on its end a short steering lever, which translates the motion to the road wheels. 66 A reliable steering mechanism is absolutely vital, of course. An engine may fail, a transmission may stick, even a brake may belie its name, without serious consequences, but the breaking of one small pin, or the loss of bolt or nut in the steering gear, and THE TATE CENTRAL LIBRARY BRIXT it may be too late to make good resolutions for the future. Therefore, not only should a purchaser assure himself that the car he is buying has a staunch steering gear, but it is an after duty of prime importance not to neglect the precautionary measures necessary to proper maintenance. Engine Control. In the remarks on the carburettor and its operations, I called attention to the function of the throttle valve. The throttle valve controls the amount of gas passing to the cylinder. What controls the throttle? A lever on the steering wheel, a pedal under the driver's foot, or both. The throttle is rarely fully open except for accelerating or speeding up, for hill climbing, or for fast work along the level while the watchmen snore in their boxes, as Carlyle would say! Another factor in engine control is the ignition, or spark advance, lever, by the manipulation of which speed may be slightly varied.

Tyres. The tyre question is a burning question. Of that there is no manner of doubt whatever. Certainly, if we except the commercial vehicle, the pneumatic tyre holds the field to-day practically to the exclusion of every other form. But that is only because the motorist prefers to bear the ills he has than fly to others he wots not of. On the credit side, the pneumatic has resilience, speed, and comfort for the car occupant, while the considerable ability of the tyre to absorb road shock tends, of course, to the maintenance of the car mechanism in good running condition, and, therefore, makes for longevity. On the debit side, however, there is the haunting liability to puncture and burst, and the inconveniences and delay inseparable therefrom; but above all that there is the enormous comparative cost. Tyres are far and away the largest item in the sum of running expense.

The inventor has, of course, been quite alive to possibilities in this direction, and has tumbled out upon us any number of devices designed to remedy the tyre's de- N 2 fects. Mainly, the idea has been to allow of the substitution of solid or semi-solid tyres by the provision of resilient wheels and the like. The measure of success obtained can be gauged by the fact that the pneumatic tyre stands very much where it did in point of popularity. All the same, we have had great constructional improvements in this form of tyre, while spare wheels and rims have palliated some of the inconveniences consequent upon puncture.

Now, when the tyre deflates we clap on our spare wheel and keep on smiling-if we can.

Recently, however, we have had to consider a development along the line of pneumatic suspension which may conceivably provide a solution to the tyre problem.

The idea involves the abolition of the old (and present) form of leaf spring, and the substitution of a chamber of compressed air which forms a cushion against which a piston connected with the road wheels presses. It is much too early to say with any degree of certainty that here is the remedy for tyre trouble, but it is undoubtedly a most hopeful line of development. If the pressure in the air cylinder can be automatically adjusted to the varying speeds and loads of the car, it is obvious that not only have we a more adequate form of suspension than the leaf spring compromise, already referred to, can provide, but we have also an opportunity for the use of solid or semi-solid tyres of the Torkington type.

Bodies. This should properly have a separate section of its own. vn. It is not provided because we cannot, after all, deal with a subject upon which decided views are as futile as masculine convictions upon the subject of ladies' hats. The only certain thing is that comfort is a prime consideration in a car body. That connotes something deep and snug in upholstery, reasonably high sides, and ample leg room. The coach-builder has therefore given us the torpedo" body. And the cognoscenti, ever since, have been raging furiously together in an endeavour to decide whether the torpedo," flush, high-sided body makes for beauty. We may leave them raging. The "torpedo" body consumes some space, truly, but it is undoubtedly comfortable. Let it rest at that. 66 From the Driving Seat. We set out together to try to discover just why it was the wheels went round. We have probed into all the mechanical mystery lying between the radiator and the back axle of a common car type. But the mechanism [AUTOMOBILES has not been set in motion. The vehicle has not moved. How shall we get it out of the motor house and along the road under its own power? This way: First, we fill the radiator with water, the tank with petrol, the lubricator with oil. We see whether any other part of the mechanism stands in need of the oil can. This done, a glance is necessary at the tyres. They pass muster. Very well; we are ready to start.

Turn on the petrol tap; "tickle" or agitate the needle protruding from the top of the carburettor, which will have the effect of flooding the float chamber and causing the petrol to spurt from the jet to provide an initial richness of mixture; see that the throttle and ignition levers are correctly placed, that the change speed lever is in the "neutral" position, and switch on. A few turns of the starting handle, and our engine is rotating. 66 Now, get aboard. Seat yourself at the steering wheel; press your left foot on the clutch pedal, thus cutting out or disconnecting the engine from the gear-box. Now take hold of, and move, the gear lever into the low-speed notch. Move the throttle lever on the steering wheel a little more to the open" position to speed the engine up, and then, and only then, and very gently, let the clutch in. The car will commence to move forward, and strict attention is necessary to the steering. The low speed, you will soon find, is not fast enough, so you again "declutch," quickly and firmly shift the gear lever to the second speed notch, and quietly release the clutch pedal again. The car will commence to gather pace up to quite twelve miles an hour. But the speed mania has gripped you, and nothing but the top" speed will satisfy.

Repeat the previous operation, putting the gear lever into the "top notch. It is done. You are travelling up to the speed limit. 66 دو The Why of It. It is as easy as that, and it comes about after this wise. You have switched on the current that makes the spark in the cylinder. You turn the starting handle which engages with the crank shaft. As you turn, therefore, you are drawing down the piston, and the piston is sucking in the mixture from the carburettor, through the inlet valve. The valve closes and your piston rises on the compression stroke, and at the moment of greatest compression the spark occurs, explodes the mixture, and drives the piston down with great force. You have finished with the starting handle. The engine is running.

All you turn the starting handle for is to get the initial suction and compression of AUTOMOBILES] gas in the cylinder and the explosion. The engine does the rest.

But as your gears are in neutral position, the car does not move. You take your seat, take the clutch out, and mesh your gears with the aid of the gear lever at your side, and let the clutch in again. Immediately the drive is taken up through the cardan shaft to the differential, from whence it is distributed along both sides of the live axle to the rear road wheels. 66 The rest, when you have grown accustomed to your engine, when you can feel" it and tell to a nicety the amount of throttle and spark to give to get the requisite speed for conditions prevailing-the rest, I say, is heart's desire. Some there be for whom the car has no delight-who discern in it nothing but an unnecessary complication of an already complex scheme of things.

For them the great pity. For us-the Wanderlust and the car.

A Final Word. - This in conclusion. We have been dealing throughout our article with a car of commonplaces-just an ordinarily featured modern vehicle. There are, of course, variations from standard practice innumerable. Every part of a car has been the subject of countless attempts at improvement, and, although for every invention relating to motor traction which has been adopted, a thousand exist only to adorn the records of the Patent Office, there are sufficient of the former to require a separate encyclopædia, if they are to be dealt with faithfully. We can do no more than an unseemly gallop through a few. do no The worm drive was casually mentioned in the section dealing with the differential.

As its name suggests, a worm on the end of the driving shaft engages with a worm wheel which distributes the power to the live axle, and takes the place of the bevel pinion and wheel. The worm is generally admitted to have advantages of efficiency and silence over the bevel. It is now standard on several cars, and looks like coming to general adoption. crown Then, again, in the transmission department, the gear-box, in its present form, is certainly only here on sufferance. It is a crude idea, that edgewise meshing of toothed gears" a mechanical crime," Henry Ford, of America, called it. Many attempts are being made to supersede it, and I will be prophetic and name a future for the "Thomas" gear, as yet to comparatively unknown for anything but heavy vehicles.

The Knight sleeve-valve engine has been notably successful in practice on Daimler cars, and is now fitted by the Minerva Company also. It may be taken as harbinger of development toward simplicity of valve mechanism, and possibly the final overthrow of the "poppet" or mushroom-headed variety. The latter, however, have done, and are doing, excellent service, and will die hard.

The elusive problem of carburation has agitated many brains-often owned by men of some theory and no practice. The results have sometimes been weirdly wonderful. Where, however, theory and practice have been combined in right proportions, there have been notable advances. To mention one instance only-the Polyrhoe.

This is amongst the claimants for wide adoption, and is remarkable for at least one unique feature. The blending of the petrol THE INTERIOR OF A "SILENT KNIGHT" FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE. and air can be actually watched, and the mixture followed on its way through the carburettor.

The mere name mention of a few further endeavours toward the perfect motor vehicle must suffice: The Hele-Shaw clutch, Lodge ignition, Challenge reinforced tyre tubes, Allen-Liversidge front wheel brakes, and Amans, Sharpe, and Cowey systems of pneumatic suspension-these and many more. 66 a Edison was once asked to affirm that invention was matter of inspiration.

No," he said; "perspiration"! He was as wrong as the individual he corrected.

Invention is both, and no man can say in what proportion they mix in any particular Let us offer thanks to all who have case. contributed their quota to our service, the great unknown not less than the great known. An invention, after all, is the concrete expression of long generations of thought and work. It stands at the end of a line stretching far back into the dead years. All down that line men have given of their best to bring an idea to final fruition. The inventor is merely heir. In honouring him (when we do honour him; when he does not die in obscurity and poverty), we honour the nameless men, his pale progenitors.

This wonderful car, their work, is with us-imperfect still, but still wonderful. It is in its very young youth yet, but it has challenged the form of road haulage that has come to us through the centurieschallenged, and, in a very few years, won. The car of the future will do mightier things. It will doubtless be a far different vehicle from the one we have to-day. "The road of progress begins in the simplicity of crudeness, and runs through the complexity of half-achievement to its goal in the simplicity of perfection." A true word. We may leave the future to itself in content.

ALEX. J. M. GRAY.

Motor Cycling and the Machine: The Game and the Handicap. - If we can agree that sport is a game played for the sake of itself, for the excitement of it, for the recreation and amusement to be derived from it, then I dare assert that in the field of the automobile motor cycling is, gener- ॐ OLYMPIC GAMES, AUGUST, 1908. CLOSE RUNNING IN THE ONE HOUR SCRATCH RACE. ally, better sport than any other form of motoring, except, perhaps, aviation. For those who can follow it, the motor cycle [AUTOMOBILES provides more of the essentials of a good game than are obtainable from the car.

There is just that element of insecurity to be overcome, just that spice of danger to be avoided, which constitutes the soul of the game. Where the results are a pregone conclusion, there is little left to play for. Without risk, in some form or the other, the lump is robbed of its leaven.

If this suggests that motor cycling is a dangerous pastime, it suggests other than the fact. Given a certain reserve of resource and individual alertness, and a modicum of good horse sense, and the motor cycle is as safe and, nowadays, practically as reliable as an ordinary pedal bicycle.

Certainly, the motor cycle requires more skill to manipulate, more knowledge to get the best results, a little more attention and considerably more expenditure than its democratic, engineless brother, but for all these things, it multiplies advantages in the eyes of the motor cyclist.

I am not prepared to affirm that it is always as handy an instrument of transport as an ordinary bicycle. If the only available storehouse is up or down stairs, it presents difficulties of housing. The flatdweller must perforce make special arrangements for his stabling. A motor cycle is not always ready for the road at moment's notice. It is not yet an ideal vehicle for crowded traffic threading. And for dirty weather, when the normal eczema on the high road's face has been watered and churned to the consistency of slime, the possibility of catastrophe from sideslip is enough to deter even the stout heart. a The Balance of Advantage. Let us admit all the handicaps quite cheerfully.

There is no purpose served in carrying a halo amongst our accessories. But, having given the opposition all the case they raise, the motor cyclist is left with a balance of gain for his trouble and expenditure that leaves him hugely content. Practically every improvement in the pedal bicycle is designed to secure greater ease of running.

The motor cyclist, with his machine in good fettle, has that a hundredfold. With his free engine and variable gear he can get away with very little more trouble than his big brother in the car, and can run as carefree and effortless. The facility with which a bicycle can take a man out and into the country's heart, the motor cyclist has in superlative degree by comparison. His greater speed is supposed to rob him of many of the sights and sounds that a "push" cyclist enjoys. It does not. He can see all the ordinary cyclist sees, and can study botany and geology en route in the AUTOMOBILES] same way-by stopping! On the other hand, the oxygenation of the blood is better effected by the speed; he can cover a far wider range of country in the time open to him; can travel from Dan even unto Beersheba, and get to know something of both places, while the cyclist must content him with Dan and its environs (assuming that give much of the exhilaration referred to.

And, besides, twenty miles an hour is not the minimum speed. One may drive a motor cycle at almost a walking pace. It is merely a matter of familiarity with one's engine and its adequate manipulation. Time was when it required an athlete to get into the saddle, after a run of any distance, and MOTOR CYCLING RACES IN THE ISLE OF MAN, 1909.

Dan has an existence and has any environs).

He can, in brief, do most things a car or a bicycle can do, at not a prohibitively greater running cost than the latter, and at infinitely less cost than the former, and have the pleasure of speed, the satisfaction of dominating his machine, and an almost indefinable sense of exhilaration born of both, and the chances of the game.

That last can only be appreciated by the motor cyclist. It starts with the requirements of balance, and it grows with the pace. There may be no risks upon the road at all, and after a little time balance is maintained automatically and without effort, but the exhilaration is not the less keen.

It is the possibility of something turning up that will call for quick decision, instantaneous action, and the knowledge that he is alive to all the risks, and can steer around the danger zone every time, that counts.

A Little History. But I fear I may be startling the potential tyro. Let him be comforted. I am not an apostle of speed.

The law allows twenty miles an hour in the open country, and it is fast enough to a the work of a very strong man in pushing the machine along until it fired. That is all over and done. We have reached stage where ease of starting and control are rapidly becoming well-nigh equal to that of a car, and later in this article I will endeavour to show how that result is effected. Meanwhile I only desire to emphasise the point that there is little to deter the man who halts in a decision to-day from deciding to go ahead to the realisation of his desire.

The story of the development of the motor cycle is brimful of interest. It had the same origin, of course, as the motor-car, but, although contemporaneous with its big brother, its rise to popularity has been of a rather more recent growth. The construction of a light internal combustion engine that will act efficiently on the fragile frame of a bicycle, presented, naturally, greater difficulties than confronted the motor-car engineer. With the car, the problem of weight, although pressing enough, was not so vital when a broad base like the car frame was available for mounting. Moreover, when both motor-car and motor cycle were born, the internal combustion engine, so far as its application to road haulage was concerned, was in a very embryonic state. The engineer had all the difficulties he wanted to produce an efficient [AUTOMOBILES plished by the Brothers Collier, H. Martin, H. V. Colver, Lee Evans--to name a very few of the more prominent. Unnecessary to emphasise the contribution which competitions have made to the evolution of the finely, almost delicately, balanced me- 3 H.P. REX CYCLE TAKING BEND IN DEVIL'S ELBOW, ISLE OF MAN. and comparatively heavy-weight engine for his car. The very light-weight engine could only come in the days of the refinement of production. Now we can construct engines of much less than 3 lb. weight per horse-powerand the rise of the aeroplane (literally as well as metaphorically) and of the motor cycle punctuate the advance. To-day, although a grotesque, we have a motor-cycle engine of 16-20 h.p. among the actualities, and on the racing track for short distances this machine has touched the almost incredible speed of 90 miles an hour. Sixty to seventy miles an hour on the track are, however, comparatively common with engines of one-half (and less) the nominal power of the uncouth Brobdingnagian referred to, while in big road competitions, such as the Tourist Trophy Race in the Isle of Man, averages of 49 m.p.h. for distances of 150 miles have been made.

Factors in Popularisation. - Small need here to deal with the great feats accomchanism that constitutes the motor cycle's motive power and transmission system.

Almost redundancy to write of the part the local clubs have played in the popularisation of this slim expression of tractive efficiency. These things are known and appreciated wherever two or three meet together with an interest in the machine. The others are not to be enthused for the game by a recital of the dry facts and figures of advance. The real torch that sets the flame of desire ablaze with these is the motor cyclist himself, slipping along the high road without effort, or skimming the competitive track at swallow speed.

That torch (and others) has functioned very effectively indeed, if we may judge by the number of motor cycles in commission at the present time. An examination shows that, although a few years ago the pessimist was forecasting the extinction of this form of transport altogether, and finding, it must be confessed, considerable ground for his dismal foreboding in the stagnant trade con- AUTOMOBILES] ditions then prevailing, the sum of the motor cycle to-day approximately equals the total of other motor road vehicles. At the same time, imports of motor cycles and parts into the United Kingdom are at their lowest, having been steadily declining for several years, while exports are mounting in a manner that must make for a state of much complacency in the mind of the man concerned with local economic problems. In 1909, for example, exports simply doubled themselves, and although there is, of course, a fairly well defined limitation to that sort of expansion, the present auguries are all for a state of continued good business. Quite certainly, therefore, the motor-cycle industry is factor of no mean importance in the nation's commercial activity. a My part here, however, as in the case of the article on the motor-car, is to deal with the why of the motor cycle's movement.

It will not be so difficult, because the essential process of power generation is the same as in the car, and those who wish to familiarise themselves with the happenings inside the engine need only turn back to that section of the motor-car article dealing with it. The mode of transmitting the power is different, certainly, and to that difference I shall give due attention.

Furthermore, the question of personal comfort and the amelioration of the motor cyclist's lot generally has to be traversed. turers in a great variety of shapes and designs. They do not seem to be able to agree as to what a motor cycle should resemble. I am forced, therefore, to depict two machines, a "heavy-weight" and 66 a light-weight," as being typical of all that is best in the realm of motor cycles. Let me explain. A heavy-weight is a machine of 3 h.p. and upwards, weighing at least 150 lb. A light-weight, of 11/4 to, say, 23/4 h.p. would scale from 70 to about 140 lb. They constitute two distinct creations, and their essential merits are a moot point still among practical motor cyclists.

It is certainly strange at first sight why motor cycles should have become separated into two camps. But the reason is not far to seek. The original motor cycle was an adaptation of the pedal cycle with a motor attachment. It was, to put it mildly, not a success. It added much weight, but failed to add the necessary power to move the weight. Out of that impossible condition the heavy-weight machine had its rise. It was borne in upon the maker that, however much was sacrificed upon the altar of weight, adequate power must be available.

And then it became obvious that if the power was to be adequately transmitted to the road driving wheel, the engine and mechanism would have to form an integral part of the machine, and not a sort of adventitious attachment thereto. The result of his efforts may be seen in the modern 9 13 15. 16 18 BROOKLANDS, 1909. START OF MOTOR CYCLE RACE.

The Two Classes. - And now I am in a quandary. It is my wish to interpose upon this page an illustration of a machine which we can "vet" and discuss. There's the rub. Unlike the car, the motor cycle to-day is presented by our honourable manufacheavy-weight, which will go anywhere without pedal assistance, and is capable, if necessary, of driving a passenger-carrying attachment and full luggage equipment as well.

As for the light-weight, one can correctly season. [AUTOMOBILES The position is not ideal for the magneto.

It is wet and muddy down there some days. days .

But the manufacturer has difficulties. He cannot place his magneto in front of the cylinder, for the reason that it would keep the latter from getting the full benefit of the air circulating about it for cooling purposes.

He refuses to place it behind the engine, as he decides (from experience) that a magneto and carburettor must not be in too close an association. Because, if the carburettor were to "flood" over at any time, any stray sparks from the magneto contactbreaker (and they sometimes occur) would ignite the petrol vapour. In which case the rider would be well advised to dismount in haste without bothering about dignity. pronounce it as owing its existence to the it to rotate and deliver its spark in due high state of excellence to which motor design has been brought, whereby a light and high-speed engine became possible.

The designer of the light-weight lays it down that if, by providing a reliable little engine of just sufficient power for 90 per cent. of the day's work, he can make a machine of half the weight of the heavy motor cycle, he is fully justifying his production. By this reduction in weight the effective pedalling power of the rider is considerably more than doubled, so that he can, with a comparatively small muscular effort, give enough material assistance to the motor to overcome the steep hills representing that contingent 10 per cent. for which the engine does not provide. Apart from these considerations, the light-weight makes out a good case for itself from the view-point of first cost and running charges. Given free engine, and its future for solo work will, I think, be undoubtedly great. Let us now consider the two types, beginning with the heavy. a The Heavy-weight Motor Cycle. First of all, what economic considerations decide the locality each part shall have? From the illustration it is apparent that the engine occupies the only space available. It is "hung" as low as possible in order to improve stability. It is placed vertically, since the functions of the cylinder take place in the head, and, therefore, that department deserves to be located where dust, wet, and rust can least interfere with those functions. This premise granted, it is obvious that the tank is also well situated. And that leaves us free to consider detail more closely.

Contrary to car practice, the engine is placed across the machine, i.e., with crank shaft at right angles to the frame. Although the flywheel is not apparent, it is there, incorporated with the engine cranks, and, therefore, contained within the crank case.

The carburettor can be seen to the left, behind the engine, where it is fairly well protected, and can get the advantage of the warm air radiating off the cylinder. One effect of petrol being vaporised is to lower the temperature of the carburettor to wellnigh below freezing. It is this that the warm air tends to counteract. دو Connection is made between the tank and the carburettor by a petrol pipe, which is provided (as a safeguard against stoppage) with sludge and dirt catchers. The magneto can be seen placed forward to the right below the "down tube" of the frame.

A chain (or gear) drive from the crank shaft to the armature of the magneto causes Cooling, Control, and Transmission. The cooling of the engine is effected, as I mentioned early in the chapter on the car, by the circulation of air conducting the radiating heat away. Gills," to be seen in the illustration, are cast round the cylinder in order to present an increased metal surface to the air, and hasten radiation. 66 Engine control is from the handle-bar, where there is (a) a throttle lever and (b) a "hand air" lever, by the agency of which one can vary the strength of the mixture.

The magneto spark advance lever is operated by a control attached to the tank. A further hand lever is provided by which the exhaust valve can be lifted off its seating. With the exhaust valve open, there is no adequate suction on the carburettor, no compression in the cylinder, and the engine stops firing. This last is a great convenience in driving through traffic, as not only does the engine stop, but it also acts as a resistance to the free running of the bicycle. In other words, the engine functions as a brake.

There is a lubricating-oil compartment in the fore-end of the tank, from which the oil can be forced by hand pump to the engine crank case. From here it is picked up and splashed above by the flywheel cranks, ultimately reaching the cylinder walls and finishing its task.

That completes the engine, and we may turn to the transmission. Here, too, are many divergencies from car practice. Only in one or two cases have the manufacturers been successful in their adaptation of the transmission system of the car. In point of fact there is little need for the car type of sliding gear in a motor cycle. The average 31/2-h.p. bicycle has ample power for all conditions, saving, perhaps, the steepest of hills, or when it has a side car AUTOMOBILES] attached. To cope with this we can fit (although not absolutely necessary) an Epicyclic" two-speed gear of the most efficient order. ،، Our machine is shown with belt drive.

The engine shaft has mounted on it a Vpulley, while a V-grooved drum is attached to the spokes of the back wheel. Finally, a belt connects the two and completes the transmission. a The Free Engine. In the prologue I mentioned the advantage of a free engine." With the belt drive, as I have described it, it is necessary, unfortunately, to stop the engine if one desires to stop the travel of the machine. Not so with the Carrier Air Lever Throttle Brake Lever wheel, so that the machine may be pushed along without the engine working at all, or the engine may be working without transmitting its power to the road wheel. That is the engine in its "free" position. To start the engine, all that is necessary is to thrust on the cycle pedal which is connected to the belt drum by the chain; the belt drum revolves and conveys the motion to the engine via the belt. It is exactly the same operation as starting the car by the starting handle.

Whatever device is adopted (and, as I have said, there are many), so long as it functions efficiently, this is an enormous gain. It does away with the starting diffi- Ignition Lever Exhaust Valve Lifter on left handle grip Spring Forks Oil Pump Brake TANK Belt Carburettor Cycle Stand Brake FRIUMPH Magneto Magnelo Shield Silencer C are free engine clutch machine. There several good expositions of this device on the market, good one being the 66 a Triumph," although it gives no variability of gear. The belt drum is mounted on a separate axle concentric with the road wheel axle, and a spring pressed multiple disc clutch connects the two. If the clutch be withdrawn (by a pedal operated by the right foot), the back wheel and belt drum wheel are disconnected, and the engine can therefore rotate, although the machine is stationary. A further important feature is that the pedalling chain and free wheel are mounted on an extension of the axle of the belt drum wheel, and so the engine can be started by a single thrust with the foot on the pedal, while the machine remains at a standstill and without propelling it along.

It happens in this way. First, we declutch by pressing on the right-foot pedal referred to. That cuts out the engine from the road culty (that struggling run with the machine until the engine fired, and the subsequent hurried vault into the saddle) which made motor cycling impossible except for the athletic. It does away with the necessity for driving quickly through traffic, and slippery places, in order to prevent the engine from stopping-a very dangerous habit indeed. To-day (in the sere and yellow leaf perhaps?) you take your machine, “declutch," "tickle" the carburettor, press once or twice on the pedal, and your engine is running. You get astride the machine, and, with befitting dignity, quietly let in the clutch, and-away.

The "Epicyclic" two-speed gear I have referred to can also be incorporated in the back hub, and has the advantage of providing not only a free-engine clutch, but also a low gear, which has decided advantages for traffic driving where slow speeds are necessary, while it is more than an advantage for starting on single-figure gradients, and for passenger or side car work. Its chief drawback is in the great extra weight which has to be borne by the back wheel.

The Light-weight Machine. - The lightweight machine needs little space. It conforms in principle, although not always in the disposition of its parts, with the heavyweight. One usually sees the engine neatly inclined forward, lying parallel to the front down tube of the frame, with the magneto placed behind the cylinder and bolted to the crank case. There are few other material differences. The cycle illustrated (Figs. 12 and 13), La Motosacoche, shows the complete machine with its enamelled metal wings, covering in the engine-an admirable feature from the point of view of cleanliness and appearance, while Fig. 13 shows the complete engine and control.

Shock Absorbing. -Come we now to the all-important question of riding comfort.

And here we are up against a very legion of spring forks, saddle pillars, and the like, quite impossible, in the space available, to deal with adequately. It will be best, therefore, to confine ourselves to a statement of the requirements, leaving the selection of the particular shock-absorbing device to the judgment of the purchaser.

There are two distinct vibratory effects to be dealt with, those arising from inequalities of the road, and those set up by the engine itself. To palliate the former, some absorbing agency must be incorporated in the front fork, without in any way weakening the mechanical strength of this sorely tried part of the machine. In addition, it is very desirable to mount the saddle on spring buffers having a vertical motion.

When we come to deal with the problem of engine vibration, however, cur difficuities are not so easily surmounted. Engine [AUTOMOBILES vibrations are characteristically short and sharp, and, therefore, are not really palliated by the saddle suspension. It is, however, possible to oppose their effect by the use of spring handle-bars, which, although an advantage to an extent, makes steering rather more difficult to the neophyte. On a motor cycle the vibrations of the engine become less apparent as the cycle gathers speed, but, on the other hand, the effect of the road shocks becomes more harassing.

I am, however, not after making a bogey of vibration. It is certainly ever present, but not to anything like the extent imagined. Moreover, just as I expressed much hope of pneumatic suspension in the car, so I imagine that the application of some air spring device will overcome a considerable percentage of the vibratory difficulty in motor cycling.

Sartor Resartus. - When Adam delved and Eve span, clothing was not such an important matter as it is to-dayparticularly to-day on a motor cycle. Boreas is very rude, and contributes nothing to the mental peace or bodily comfort of the man who tries conclusions with him at a speed of the speed you travel on a motor cycle. In addition, there are other adverse climatic factors to be met and overcome. If it is not always cold and wet, it is often one or the other. What we require, therefore, is a combination of heat-conserving and wetresisting raiment. Wool underclothing, a woollen vest with sleeves, a rough dustcoloured jacket and trousers, with cloth gaiters, and, over all, a well-lined threequarter overcoat, will do for fair weather. For foul and wet, a complete outfit of rainproof overalls, while a leather waistcoat is 66 always handy and useful." Gauntlet gloves of lambs' wool inside and out, a golfer's boots with a one-piece, water-proof tongue, for the feet, and a well-lined cap with ample peak for the head, will about complete the get-up.

Luggage Space. - If I have left this topic to the last, it is not because it is of the least importance. The motor-cycle designer rarely pays enough attention to the provision for the carriage of necessaries on the road. With a little systematic planning, however, it is possible to stow away a quite surprising bulk of gear-certainly sufficient for a good tour. The back carrier should have a long case made to fit neatly. This will hold a partial change of underclothing AUTOMOBILES] and the inevitable tooth-brush. On the handle-bar there is room for a light carrier to take the overalls. Immediately below the handle-bar, clear of the knees, and hanging pannier-fashion across the tank, it is possible to provide a convenient double tool bag. On the front mudguard extension I should specify a small flat case in which to carry puncture and tyre repair outfit, spare carbide for the lamp, tyre levers, &c. There is one other space, forgotten and unfilled, and that is between the back mudguard and the seat pillar down tube. Here we can place a properly shaped kit, wherein to stow the over-plus of everything and anything which always crops up at the last moment. a Variations.- I think that is all.

I have made no attempt to deal with the many points of divergence from the general lines of the typical machines I have endeavoured to describe, for the reason that, even more than in the case of the car, those variations are far too many to compress into the limits of this article. My purpose has been to provide material that will serve as a sufficient introduction to the sport and pastime of motor cycling, and to the general principles of the machine's construction.

No more than that. There are auto-cycles available to-day (the F.N. being perhaps best known) with as many as four cylinders, and with transmission systems that follow car practice (in many respects) exactly.

Although I have referred to a singlecylindered machine only, there are, of course, a very large number of "twins" on the market. For the reasons given in the car article, the increase in the number of cylinders makes for smooth engine turning. The increase in the case of the motor cycle, in addition to ensuring this smooth running, is made generally, so that higher power may be available.

Not always, however. In the Moto Reve, for example, we have a beautifully designed light-weight "twin " of comparatively low power-2 and 24 h.p. to be definite.

Then again, we have the "two stroke" Scott. In two-stroke engines, instead of the power stroke occurring once in four, it occurs once in two. This form of engine is in a comparatively embryonic stage of development, but the Scott machine has. nevertheless, given very strong proof indeed of its efficiency. It is likely enough that the two-stroke principle will be presently applied much more widely both to motorcar as well as to motor cycle work. In regard to transmission. The chaindrive, as distinguished from the belt, is fitted to one or two makes of motor-cycles, and upon the Indian has, both in track and road competitions, fully justified the claims of its sponsors. In the Indian, again, pump lubrication is a feature of no small importance. And so on. In Conclusion. Now. We have the machine. We want the man. He is recruited from the ranks of the men of middle means. I have endeavoured to cater for his requirements, even though he also be of middle age, and in quest of rejuvenation, in a comfortable well-sprung machine, the twospeed gear, and the free engine. An it please him the better, there is the light-weight with negligible cost of upkeep. Of his ultimate satisfaction I have little fear. He need have little fear concerning mechanical pains in the engine provided it be lubricated wisely and well. He will find his tyres as easy of repair as those of his old pedal cycle, and the steering is the same. He has the assurance that, as a means of recreation, there is nothing cheaper except the pedal cycle he has discarded. The range of the motor-cycle's action is as great, and the speed that he can travel the equal, of the car.

He is a motorist at less than onequarter the capital cost and at one-tenth the running charge of his big brother on four wheels. He is nippier, handier, readier. He is, in short, in all the essentials of that term, a king of the road.

ALEX. J. M. GRAY.

GLOSSARY.

NOTE. As this glossary is intended principally for use with the text, a somewhat narrow definition of terms has been used. Accelerate.-To give a car a gain in speed, so that each moment sees an increased rate of travel.

Accelerator.-A usual term applied to a pedaloperated throttle-valve. Accumulator, or storage battery, consists of alternate plates of lead oxide (positive plate) and metallic lead (negative), immersed in a solution of dilute sulphuric acid. If a sufficient current of electricity be passed through this combination of elements, a chemical action is set up. If the accumulator be now connected in a circuit, the chemical reaction will cause a discharge current of electricity to flow.

Armature. The rotated, or movable, component of the magneto, comprising a central spindle, on which is mounted a core of soft iron plates, surrounded by a considerable length of fine insulated copper wire. The fact of moving the armature round in proximity to the permanent steel magnets results in the generation of an electrical current.

Automatic Air Valve. - An auxiliary valve covering an air port in the carburettor, and usually situated between the jet and the throttle.

The object of this valve is to automatically open as the engine speed increases, and admit just so much additional air as is required to maintain a correctly proportioned mixture of petrol and air.