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Countries of the World: Greece

HISTORY.-Involved in obscurity and confused by tradition and fable, the early history of the people is but little known. Whether the first emigrants from Asia found in Greece original tribes with whom they united, or whether they found the land unoccupied, there are no means of determining. The Greeks were fond of tracing their origin back to a common ancestor, Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, survivors of the deluge; and the divisions of the race, Dorians, Ionians, Æolians, and Achæans, claimed to be descended from Dorus and Æolus, sons of Hellen, and Ion and Achæus, sons of Xuthus, the third son of Hellen. The popular belief is that Æolus succeeded Hellen as king of Phthia, in Thessaly, and his descendants spread over the centre of Greece as far as the Isthmus of Corinth; the Dorians, from whom the historic Spartans were descended, were confined to Doris; the Ionians, progenitors of the Athenians of the historic period, occupied Attica, while the Achæans in the heroic age occupied Mycenæ, Argos and Sparta. The first inhabitants of Greece were called Pelasgians by the Greeks themselves, and were considered as of a different race from the Hellenes, and had a different language. It was believed that Egyptian and Phœnician immigrants brought in arts, culture, and religious rites from countries of a much more ancient civilization. It is certain there was frequent intercourse between the Greeks and Phoenicians, and the Greek alphabet is apparently of Phoenician origin. The heroic age of Greece is the legendary period when men were represented as being descended from the gods, and whose expeditions and exploits are sung by the immortal Homer. Following the Trojan war came the establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor, where numerous cities were founded. The authentic history of Greece begins with the Olympiads, 776 в. c., when the country was divided into a number of small States, with separate governments. At this time Sparta was of the least imporance, and her territory exceedingly small; but the genius of her leaders gradually raised her to a foremost place among the commonwealths. Her citizens became noted for their laws and their valor, and the latter enabled the Spartans, after a lapse of a few years, to extend their conquests in every direction. In the middle of the 6th century B. c., Sparta had become the most powerful of the Greek States, and we find that at this period the Hellenic race was at the van of civilization in the European world. Then began a series of desperate contests with the Persians, which were marked by alternating victories and defeats-Marathon, Thermopylæ, and Salamis. About the year 362 began the Macedonian period, which closed the brilliant independent existence of the Greek commonwealths. The wars succeeding the Persian conflicts had exhausted the resources and demoralized the character of the Greeks, and prepared the way for any powerful neighbor, to build up an empire on the ruins of Hellenic independence. Macedonian rule had become supreme, and repeated insurrections occurred for the purpose of throwing off the rule, by the Athenians, but to no effect, until 325 B. C., when this was temporarily accomplished. In 200 the Romans appeared, and 3 years latter forced the Macedonians to yield their supremacy and pay the expense of the last war upon the Athenians. In 171 war between the Romans and Macedonians again ensued, the latter were defeated, and Macedonia became a Roman province. The civil wars that overturned the Roman Republic desolated Greece; but the Empire at last established peace throughout the civilized world. Greece was still a seat of learning, arts, and culture. She was crowded with temples and statues, the products of the best ages. Her schools of philosophy and rhetoric flourished, the forms of public life were maintained. But the dignity and influence of official position gradually sunk in the public estimation under a foreign administration. About the middle of the 3rd century Goths appeared and overran the country, but it was gallantly defended. Christianity had done much to modify the condition, intellectual and moral, of the people, and from the time of Paul's preaching in Athens it had been gaining upon the ancient Paganism. The seat of the Roman Empire was removed to Constantinople in 330, and in 395 the separation of the eastern and western empires occurred. At this time the name of the ancient Hellenes began to be limited to the adherents of the ancient religion. In the reign of Justinian (527-565) philosophical schools, in which doctrines adverse to Christianity were taught, were closed. In 476 the Western Empire fell, and during this period Slavs and other races began appearing in Greece, and up to the 8th century they held a large part of the country. They were finally driven out, and the country was mainly restored to the descendants of its ancient inhabitants. Yet to this day the effects of these Slavic settlements are seen in the character of the people of some sections of Greece, especially in the Peloponnesus. The history of the country from the 8th to the 10th century is not noteworthy. In 1081 the Normans appeared, and plundered Corinth, Thebes, and Athens. In 1203 Constantinople was captured in the Crusade, and the Latin princes divided Greece among them and established principalities. All these Frankish governments were swept away by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453, and in a few years thereafter extended their conquests over Greece, and incorporated it into the Turkish Empire. Under this administration the country gradually sunk to a most miserable condition. In the last half of the 18th century the spirit of nationality and independence once more asserted itself, secret societies were established, and the preparations continued until the 1st quarter of the 19th century (1821), when the insurrection broke out. This struggle was a protracted one and bitterly fought, and the issue seemed doubtful, until at last foreign powers interferred, and the Turks, in 1829, were compelled to acknowledge the independence of the State. After the selection of two sovereigns for the emanicipated country-the first of whom declined, and the second was assassinated-Otho, second son of the King of Bavaria, came to the throne in 1832. In 1844 the king was forced to accede to a constitutional government. The history of the first decade under the new system was characterised by little else than political disturbance, turbulent elections, ministerial changes, and insurrections. When the Crimean war broke out Greece took a decided stand in favor of Russia, but the threats of England and France compelled the Government to pledge itself to neutrality. England had exercised a protectorate over the Ionian Islands, against which the people rebelled. In 1859-61 negotiations were opened to remove the British relations with these islands, but it was unsuccessful. The people were in a state of almost continuous insurrection in Greece, and in 1862 demanded the relinquishment of the crown by Otho, who acceded, and an election was held by universal suffrage. Prince George of Denmark was chosen, and England consented to the relinquishment of the Ionian protectorate. In 1866 the Cretan revolution threatened to involve Greece in a conflict with Turkey. The danger was finally averted, but the finances of the country were left in a most deplorable condition. The protecting powers of Greece are England, France, and Russia, who jointly guarantee her independence. TURKEY.

Sultan-Abdul Hamid II., b. Sept. 22, 1842; proclaimed Aug. 31, 1876. Heir Presumptive-His brother, Mehemmed Reshad Effendi.