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South America: Silver
MINERALS.-Ever since the discovery of this country its mineral resources have been famous. In nearly all the mountain streams gold is found in placers, while lode deposits are of common occurrence. Veins of silver, copper, and lead, also abound. Carabaya boasts the most celebrated gold mines. Silver, however, constitutes the chief mineral wealth of the country, being found in all forms and combinations, from the pure metal to the lead ore mixed with silver. Mining has until quite recent years been conducted in primitive fashion, but the introduction of machinery and railroads has worked a wonderful change in this important industry. Even with the old-fashioned method three mines-those of Cerro de Pasco, Hualgayoc, and Huantajay-from 1630 to 1803 yielded £165,000,000 in silver bullion. The estimated annual production of precious metals in Peru is about £1,200,000, of which amount £1,000,000 is silver. Silver mines are also worked near Huarochiri. The quicksilver product is also large, the principal mines being those of Huancavelica and Chota. In the departments of Ayacucho, Huancavelica, Arequipa, Ancachs, Piura, and Cajamarca, lead, iron, aluminium, sulphur, lime, magnesia, and sulphate of soda are found in extensive quantities; while cobalt and nickel prevail in the province of Huanta; and borax and gypsum abound in many sections. Many fine qualities of marble and alabaster are quarried in Puno and Ayacucho; petroleum occurs in several localities in Piura, coal at Cerro de Pasco, Paracas, Arica, and on the line of railway from Arequipa to Puno.
SOIL AND VEGETATION. - There are extensive tracts of arable land in all parts of the republic, except in the most elevated districts. Great varieties of timber and cabinet wood grow, and the cinchona groves of the N. are equal to those of the Ecuador.
GUANO DEPOSITS.-The principal source of Peruvian wealth since 1836 has been the guano islands referred to in the introductory paragraph. The most noted islands are the Chinchas, just off the coast, and about 12 m. from the port of Pisco, in the department of Lima. These islands are evidently the result of volcanic upheavals. The shores are bold, and rise on an average from 25 to 30 ft. above the sea, increasing in height toward the centre. The cliffs are perforated with caves and arches, the homes of multitudes of penguins and other aquatic fowl, and the guano was found honey-combed with the nests of small birds, which frequented the islands in immense flocks. There was no vegetation on the islands. The guano was more than 100 ft. in depth, and was excavated and shipped by means of Chinese coolies. Hundreds of vessels in former years were usually lying there loading. The N. island and chief of the group is about four-fifths of a mile in length and one-third in breadth, and it has been estimated that it originally contained 17,000,000 tons of guano, and the others about 25,000,000 tons; but these figures are probably exaggerated. The supply of guano on these islands is exhausted. The industries of Peru are pastoral, agricultural, and mining, There are no manufactures worth mentioning.
POPULATION. The larger portion of the population of Peru is composed of whites descended from early Spanish settlers. There are various tribes of Indians and negroes, Chinese, and many hybrids. Few pure-blooded negroes are to be found. Slavery was abolished in 1855. The most important of the aboriginal races are the Ruichuas (or Incas), and the Aymaras, who are Christians. The population in 1887 was 2,970,000. The aboriginal element is estimated at 57 per cent.; mixed races, 23 per cent.; remainder,
20 per cent.-divided among descendants of Spaniards, negroes, Chinese, and Europeans, the last forming barely two per cent. of the population.
GOVERNMENT.-Peru is a republic. It is one of the oldest of the Spanish colonies in America, but it was not until 1821 that it issued its declaration of independence, and it did not secure freedom from Spanish rule until 1824-after a three year's war with Spain. The constitution under which the country is now governed is modelled very closely after that of the United States, and was proclaimed Aug. 31, 1867. The president, senate, and congressmen are elected as in the United States. The constitution, while it is extremely liberal so far as political rights go, and guarantees absolute freedom in this particular, does not so cover the religious principles of the people. Any other religion than the Roman Catholic is absolutely prohibited, and this is declared to be the religion of the state.
The history of Peru in earliest times is that of the Incas-a warlike tribe who worshiped the sun. Francisco Pizarro was the first to despoil the Incas, and after a series of struggles the authority of the Spanish crown was established. Spain was cast out in 1821, and since then Peru has been more often at war than out of it. The last war was with Chili in 1879-81, and ended by the capture of Lima by the Chilians.
COLOMBIA.