Ander Cornelius

Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)

surnamed Polyhistor, of the 1st century B. C. The surname Polyhistor was given him on account of his prodigious learning. (5) A Greek rhetorician and poet, surnamed Lychnus; lived about 30 B. C., wrote astronomical and geographical poems. (6) ALEXANDER NUMENIUS; a Greek rhetorician and teacher of elocution, of the 2d century A. D., two of whose works are historically known. (7) A Greek rhetorician of the 2d century A. D., surnamed Peloplaton, who vanquished Herodes Atticus in a rhetorical contest. (8) ALEXANDER PHILALETHES; a physician of the 1st century B. C. who succeeded Zeuxis as president of the famous Herophilean school of medicine. (9) SAINT ALEXANDER (died 326 A. D.); the Patriarch of Alexandria from 312 A D.; an opponent of Arius; member of the Council of Nice (325 A. D. ); commemorated in the calendar Feb. 26. (10) ALEXANDER of Tralles; an eminent physician of Lydia, of the 6th century A. D.; author of two extant Greek works. ALEXANDER, the name of eight Popes (1) Alexander I., a bishop of Rome about 109 A. D., not then having the title of Pope, but now reckoned in the list. He is supposed to have died a martyr's death. 2. ALEXANDER II., Anselmo Baggio, a native of Milan; he lived for some time at the court of Henry III., and in 1056 or 1057 became Bishop of Lucca. In 1059 he became papal legate at Milan, and, on Oct. 1, 1061, through the zeal of Hildebrand, he was raised to the papal throne. 3. ALEXANDER III. (died in 1181), Rolando Ranuci; Pope 1159-1181. His career is historically important because of his vigorous prosecution, in opposition to Frederick Barbarossa, of the policies begun by Hildebrand. Three anti-Popes, Victor IV., Pascal III. and Calixtus III., had been confirmed in succession by the emperor. Alexander succeeded, and after the decisive victory at Legnano compelled Frederick's submission. The papal struggle was carried on in England by Thomas à Becket, ending in a victory for Alexander. Important changes were made by Alexander III., increasing ecclesiastical powers and privileges. 4. ALEXANDER IV., Pope 1254-1261; of weak character. In his battle with Manfred of Sicily, he suffered bitter humiliations and, deserted by his bishops, escaped from Rome. He died in Viterbo, in 1261. 5. ALEXANDER V., Pietro Philargi, of Candia. He was for some time professor in Paris, and in 1402 was made Archbishop of Milan, and in 1404 cardinal. In 1409, after the deposition of the rival Popes, Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII., of he was elected Pope by the Council of Pisa. He died at the age of 70. 6. ALEXANDER VI., Rodrigo Lenzuoli Borgia, a Spaniard, of Valencia, son of Isabelle Borgia, whose family name he took, born Jan. 1, 1431. At first he studied law, and then was appointed by his uncle, Pope Calixtus III., a cardinal before he was 25 years old. In 1458 he was made Archbishop of Valencia, and as such he led a dissipated life. He was crowned Aug. 26, 1492, with great pomp and solemnity. His daughter, Lucretia Borgia, was married to Giovanni Sforza, Lord of Pesaro, afterward to Alfonso di Biseglia, then thirdly to Alfonso d'Este, Prince of Ferrara. His son, Cæsar, who afterward got complete control of him, was made Archbishop of Valencia, and, in 1493, was appointed cardinal. Afterward, in order to create for him a secular principality, he made an alliance with Louis XII. of France. Cæsar Borgia, therefore, left the Church and became Duke of Valentinois. In 1501 he became Duke of the Romagna. On May 4, 1493, Alexander issued a bull dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal; on May 23, 1498, the execution of Savonarola took place by his order; and in 1501 he instituted the censorship of books. Alexander died Aug. 18, 1503, from poison. 7. ALEXANDER VII., Fabio Chigi, of Siena, was, during the treaties of peace at Münster and Osnabrück, papal nuncio in Germany. He was chosen Pope April 7, 1665, through the influence of France. During his rule Rome was beautified in many directions, especially through the colonnade before St. Peters. He was a poet and friend of the arts and sciences. 8. ALEXANDER VIII. (1610-1691), Pietro Ottoboni, of Venice; Pope Pope 1689- 1689- 1691; assisted Italy in wars against the Turks; was a notable nepotist. ALEXANDER I., King of Greece, born on Aug. 1, 1893, second son of King Constantine of Greece. Upon the abdication of the latter, which was forced by the Allies, Alexander ascended the throne, June 12, 1917. He declared himself the guardian of the Constitution and made it clear that he would henceforth act in co-operation with the Entente. Venizelos was made Premier on June 27, 1917. Alexander died Oct. 25, 1920, from the effects of the bite of a monkey. ALEXANDER I., Emperor of Russia, was born Dec. 23, 1777. In 1801 he succeeded his father, the murdered Emperor Paul. Many reforms were at once initiated as to education, serfdom, press censorship. In 1805, joining the coalition against Napoleon, he was present at the battle of Austerlitz, where the allied armies of Austria and Russia were defeated, and retired with the remains of his forces into Russia. Next year he came forward as the ally of Prussia, but in 1807, after the battles of Eylau and Friedland, he was obliged to conclude the Peace of Tilsit. In 1808 he declared war on England, and, attacking her ally Sweden, wrested therefrom the province Finland. In the war of France against Austria in 1809 he took only a lukewarm part; against Turkey he renewed hostilities, which were continued till the Peace of Bucharest in 1812. The unnatural alliance of Alexander with France could not, however, be maintained; and though he was not with his troops during the French invasion of Russia (1812), he took an active part in the great strug great struggles of 1813 and 1814. At the occupation of Paris after the downfall of Napoleon in 1814, he was the central figure, and was received with enthusiasm in London. At the Congress of Vienna he laid claim to Poland, but promised to confer on it a constitution. On Napoleon's return from Elba, Alexander urged the energetic renewal of the war. The most important political outcome of this period was the Holy Alliance, founded by Alexander, and accepted by all the Christian powers of Europe, except Great Britain. Many causes contributed to force him into a reactionary course, especially the influence of Metternich. He died at Taganrog, Dec. 1, 1825. ALEXANDER II., Emperor of Russia (1855-1881), was born April 29, 1818. He was carefully educated by his father, Nicholas. At 16 he was declared of age, made commandant of the lancers of the guard, hetman of the Cossacks, first aidede-camp of the Emperor, and subjected daily to a life of manœuvring, reviewing, and military parade. He then traveled through Germany, and in 1841 concluded a marriage with the Princess Marie (1824-1880), daughter of the Grand Duke of Hesse. By his dexterous and winning manners he found his way to the hearts of the Finns, and weakened their ancient love of independence. On his accession to the throne, March 2, 1855, he found himself in a very critical position. He had two parties to conciliate the old Muscovite party, zealous for the prosecution of the Crimean War, and the more peaceable portion of the nation, with whom he sympathized. By temporizing he was enabled to conclude a peace. Throughout his reign he had to hold the balance between conservatives and extreme radicals, but succeeded in The guiding and promoting reform. grand achievement of his reign, which was in great measure his own deed, was the emancipation of the serfs-23,000,- 000 1861. Reforms of the tribunals, of civil and criminal procedure, and of municipal institutions followed. He resisted strenuously all foreign interference with Polish affairs during the insurrection of 1863, which was suppressed with great severity. During his reign th the Russian empire was widely extended in two important regions in the Caucasus and in Central Asia. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 Alexander maintained a sympathetic attitude toward Germany. The Emperor shared the national sy sympathy with the Slavic races under Turkish rule, and took the field with the army during the momentous war between Russia and Turkey in 1877-1878. But the most remarkable feature of the second half of his reign was the struggle of the Russian autocracy with the revolutionary party, the so-called Nihilists. His government repressed the revolutionists most severely, and they sought vengeance by attacking the person of the Emperor and his officers. Repeated attempts were made to assassinate Alexander. On March 13, 1881, he was so severely injured by a bomb thrown at him near his palace that he died a few hours after. ALEXANDER III., of Russia, son of Alexander II., was born March 10, 1845, and married the daughter of the King of Denmark in 1866. After his father's death, through fear of assassination, he shut himself up in his palace at Gatchina. His coronation was postponed till 1883. Through the fall of Merv, the subjugation of the Turkomans in Central Asia was completed. In European affairs, he broke away from the triple alliance between Russia, Germany, and Austria, and looked rather to France. His home policy was reactionary, thoug strong efforts were made to prevent malversation by officials, and stern economies were practiced. The liberties of the Baltic provinces and of Finland were curtailed, the Jews were oppressed, and old Russian orthodoxy was favored. Several Nihilist attempts were made on his life, and he kept himself practically a prisoner in his palace. He died at Livadia, Nov. 1, 1894. ALEXANDER I., King of Scotland, the fourth son of Malcolm Canmore, was born about 1078, and in 1107 succeeded his brother, Edgar, only, however, to that part of the kingdom N. of the Firths of Forth and Clyde. He married Sibylla, a natural daughter of Henry L. of England, and his reign was comparatively untroubled. His determined resistance to the claims of York and Canterbury to supremacy over the see of St. Andrews did much to secure the independence, not only of the Scottish Church, but of Scotland itself. He died at Stirling in 1124. ALEXANDER II., born at Haddington in 1198, succeeded his father, William the Lion, in 1214. He early displayed wisdom and strength of character. His entering into a league with the English barons against King John drew down upon him and his kingdom the papal excommunication; but two years later the ban was removed. On Henry III.'s accession to the English throne, Alexander brought the feuds of the two nations to a temporary close by a treaty of peace (1217), in accordance with which he married Henry's eldest sister, the Princess Joan (1221). The alliance thus established was broken after her death without issue (1238), and the second marriage of Alexander with the daughter of a noble of France. In 1244 Henry marched against Scotland, to compel Alexander's homage; but a peace was concluded without an appeal to arms. In 1249, while engaged in an expedition to wrest the Hebrides from Norway, Alexander died of fever on Kerrera, near Oban. ALEXANDER III., King of Scotland, born in 1241, in 1249 succeeded his father, Alexander II., and in 1251 married the Princess Margaret (1240-1275), eldest daughter of Henry III. of England. Very shortly after he had come of age he was called to defend his kingdom against the invasion of Haco, King of Norway (1263), whose utter rout at Largs secured to Alexander the allegiance both of the Hebrides and of the Isle of Man. The alliance between Scotland and Norway was strengthened in 1282 by King Eric's marriage to Alexander's only daughter, Margaret (1261- 1283). His only surviving son died without issue in 1284; and next year Alexander contracted a second marriage with Joleta, daughter of the Count de Dreux. The hopes of the nation were soon after clouded by his untimely death in 1286. ALEXANDER I., King of Serbia, most important theaters in London, and born Aug. 14, 1876; son of King Milan I. In 1889 Milan abdicated and proclaimed Alexander king under a regency which was dismissed in 1893. Alexander was killed by conspirators on June 11, 1903. ALEXANDER, Regent of Serbia, born Dec. 4, 1888; second son of King ng Peter I. The eldest son, Prince George, renounced the right of succession in March, 1909, and on June 24, 1914, Peter appointed Alexander Prince Regent.