Austria-Hungary
2 of the 7 encyclopedias on this shelf carry an entry for Austria-Hungary. Both are reproduced below, so you can see where they agree and where they differ.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
a former empire of Europe, composed of a Cisleithan officially known as Austria, and portion of a Transleithan portion known as Hungary, each having its own constitution, a limited monarchy and each formerly possessing separate Parliament, uniting under a common sovereign in the establishment of a common army, navy, financial, diplomatic, postal, and telegraphic services. Supreme Legislature. - Legislation in regard to common affairs was accomplished by a supreme body known as the Delegations. Of these there were two, each composed of 60 members, representing the legislative bodies of Austria and Hungary, the upper houses returning 20 and the lower houses 40 delegates. The members of the Delegations were appointed for one year, summoned annually by the Emperor, alter. nately at Vienna and at Budapest. Subject to the Delegations were the four executive departments for Common Affairs, Foreign Affairs, War, and Finance. The agreement between the two countries, termed the Ausgleich, embraced the regulation of their fiscal and commercial affairs, of the quota paid by them to the common expenses of the empire, and the privileges of the Austro-Hungarian Bank. Empire of Austria. -Austria (capital Vienna) had an area of 115,903 903 square miles; pop. before the World W.r 28,571,934; was governed by an Emperor and by the Reichsrath, or Council of the Empire, consisting of an Upper Lower House (Herrenhaus), and a House (Abgeordnetenhaus). The Reichsrath had its own ministers and government, and exercised full parliamentary functions on all matters within its competence-from which, however, foreign affairs and war were excluded. The Upper House was composed sed of the princes of the imperial family who were of age, ge, hereditary nobles, of archbishops and bishops, and of life members nominated by the Emperor for distinguished services in science or art, or to the Church or State. The Lower House contained about 350 members, who were the popular representatives of the 16 provinces which comprised the empire. They were elected for six years by four groups: the large landed proprietors; the chambers of commerce; the inhabitants of towns, who paid 50 florins in direct taxation, or who had a vote for the Provincial Diet; and the inhabitants of country districts similarly qualified. In these four groups there were comprised about 2,000,000 voters. Purely provincial matters were administered by 16 Provincial Diets, while local matters were dealt with by communal councils. Religion and Education. The chief religious bodies in Austria, where religious liberty is the ruling principle, are Roman Old Catholics, Lutheran Reformed Evangelicals, Author and Jews. In Hungary much the same divisions exist. See HUNGARY, JUGOSLAVIA, CZECHO-SLOVAKIA, BOHEMIA, BOSNIA, WORLD WAR, etc. At the close of the Balkan wars, in 1913, Serbia was left in a far stronger condition than she had ever been in before. She had demonstrated her martial valor and in received large accessions of territory. rritory. Her growth was extremely displeasing to Austria, which did not relish the idea of having so strong a neighbor, capable perhaps of barring her way across the Balkans to Saloniki. Before and during the war, she had attempted to thwart Serbia's legitimate national thw aspirations, and after the conflict had ended in Serbia's favor, she had done all she could through diplomacy to rob her of the fruits of victory. Later she had tried to make a secret arrangement with Italy to attack Serbia on the ground that her Adriatic interests were threatened by the latter, but Italy had rejected the overture. Austria's seizure a few years previously of Bosnia and Herzegovina was another source of the friction between the two nations. The two provinces were largely Serbian in population and almost wholly so in sympathy. Their national aspirations sought to assert themselves against the alien domination of Austria, and the repressive measures adopted adopted by the latter fostered plots and conspiracies. Austria, in casting about for a pretext for aggression against Serbia, accused the latter of fostering this spirit of revolt, secretly if not openly. This ied. The bad blood between . Serbia denied the two nations was patent to the world, and it was assumed that it was only a matter of time before some act would be seized upon as a pretext for open hostilities. The occasion was furnished on June 28, 1914, when the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated, together with his wife, by a student named Prinzip, at Serajevo, Bosnia, while he was making a tour of the provi province. The assassin was at once apprehended and held for trial. The tragedy created a very bitter feel ing in Austria, which claimed that the plot had been hatched in Belgrade, with the connivance of Serbian officials. Serbia denied this, but promised a rigorous inquiry into the matter. A plausible pretext for war had now been found, and Austria set to work at once to make it unavoidable. On July 23, 1914, the Austrian Minister at Belgrade presented to the Serbian Government a note from Austria so offensively couched that it startled the world. Compliance with its terms would have made Serbia simply the vassal of Austria. It was practically an ultimatum and demanded an answer in two days. At the end of that time, Serbia replied in a note of studied moderation, accepting all the terms but two. These would have prac- Atically stripped her of sovereignty. Even these two Serbia offered to submit to arbitration. The diplomatic exchanges between the nations that accompanied and followed the Austrian note and the Serbian reply are fully treated elsewhere. (See WORLD WAR.) Austria could not be dissuaded from her predetermined course and on July 28, 1914, declared war on Serbia. Military operations began at once and Belgrade was bombarded, while an invasion was attempted of Serbia over the Bosnian border. This was checked almost at its inception, but by the end of October an invasion in force was made with 300,000 men. The Serbians, outnumbered, fell back to the hills, where battle was joined Dec. 6 and resulted in a crushing Austrian defeat. The invaders fled in utter rout, and by Dec. 15 the Austrians had been driven across the border and Belgrade had been regained. Against the Russians the Austrians were equally unsuccessful. On Sept. 1, the Russians Russians began the great battle which resulted in a victory for them, and the capture of the city of Lemberg, capital of Galicia, with a vast number of prisoners and material of war. The Austrians were compelled to seek refuge in the great fortress of Przemysl, which was later invested by the Russians, who compelled its capitulation March 22, 1915, involving the surrender of 130,000 men and 4,000 officers. Seventy thousand more were captured by the Russians in a tremendous attack upon the Carpathian passes in April, and there was every prospect that they would be able to force the passes and pour into Hungary. But at this junoture the tide of battle turned. The Russian Government had failed to keep the army of Grand Duke Nicholas supplied with arms and ammunition, and they were powerless to check the drive directed against them on May 2 by German forces, who in a few weeks had driven them out of the Carpathians and far into Volhynia. This drive, however, which eventually won Warsaw, Ivangorod, Brest-Litovsk, Kovel, Grodno, and Vilna, was purely a German one in its inception and execution, although Austrian forces co-operated under German officers. The operations persisted through the summer and early fall, but by Oct. 1 the German advance had been completely halted. The campaign of early 1916 was marked by the defeat of Serbia and the taking possession of that gallant little country by the Austrians and Germans, after the Serbians, overwhelmed by numbers, had made a most desperate resistance. Montenegro also was conquered, its principal stronghold, Mt. Lovcen, falling into Austrian hands on Jan. 11. In the meantime, Italy had entered the war, and had gained some initial advantages on the Carso Plateau. The Austrians concentrated heavy forces on that front, and on May 14 defeated the Italian General Cadorna on a line extending from Val Giudicaria to the sea. The strategic plan of the Austrians was to capture the Italian forces on the Isonzo, with the hope of forcing Italy out of the war and permitting the Austrians to attack France on the Franco- Italian frontier. The plan, however, failed, although Austria made decided gains in the Tyrol and the Trentino. By June 25 the Italian army was strong enough to take the initiative, and regained considerable of their lost ground. A still more formidable offensive was launched by them on Aug. 6 with Gorizia as the objective. The city was captured on the 9th. By Aug. 17 the Italians had taken many guns and 15,000 prisoners. During this per period, a remarkable Russian offensive had been in full swing on Austria's eastern front. The supreme command of the Russian armies had been assumed nominally by the Czar, although General Alexieff, assisted by Ivanoff and Brusiloff, was really at the head of operations. The successes attained were among the most remarkable of the war, both in the territory gained and the number of prisoners taken. Lutsk was captured June 6, and Dubno on the 8th. On June 17, the Russians captured the important city of Czernowitz, and by the 23d had overrun the whole of Bukowina. Kolomea was taken June 29. On July 8 the Russians captured Delatyn, and cut the railroad that ran through one of the passes of the Carpathians. During these operations, thousands and tens of thousands of prisoners were being taken every day, and by the time the campaign came to an end, about the first of September, the Russians had occupied 7,000 square miles of territory and taken 400,- 000 prisoners. A most damaging blow had been dealt to the Austrian morale, which was not made up by the conquest of Rumania, which was carried through by Germans, Bulgarians, and Turks with but little Austrian assistance. In February of 1917, the Austrians attacked the Italians in the vicinity of Gorizia and on the Carso Plateau, in an endeavor to regain the initiative. But the effort came to nothing and the opposing armies remained quiescent until the middle of May, when the Italians started a terrific offensive, that was maintained continuously for eighteen days. The operations were carried on at a point on the Isonzo between Tolmino and Gorizia, and Vodice Ridge and Mt. Cucco were speedily captured, with other important strategic points. The arrival of heavy reinforcements held the drive in check for a while, but it was resumed on Aug. 19. A marked success was gained in the capture of Monte Santo and more than forty villages, while the Austrian lines were penetrated to a depth of 7 miles on an 11-mile front. On the eastern front, another offensive was launched by the Russians on July 1, 1917, with Lemberg as an objective. The Russians reached points within 40 miles of that city, and then were stopped. The Russian army was by this time honeycombed with mutiny and a prey to Bolshevist influences. By July 21 it was in full retreat, whole regiments and brigades throwing away their arms and refusing to fight. The collapse of Russia had begun, and the pursuit of the retreating troops by the Austrians and Germans was unhindered by any serious resistance. Stanislau, Tarnopol, and Czernowitz were recaptured in quick succession, as the Russians fled toward their own frontiers. There was no longer aggressive action to be feared from that quarter, and Austria was free to throw the bulk of her forces against the Italian front. That concentration, with the assistance of the Germans, was instrumental in gaining a momentous victory over the Italians. But the greatest contributing element to this victory was the skillful use of subtle propaganda among a cer- 24-Vol. I-Cyc tain corps of the army that had weakened its morale. On Oct. 24, a terrific attack was begun by the combined German and Austrian armies, headed by picked divisions of German shock troops. The violence of the onset broke the Italian lines, and what was almost a panic followed. The offensive carried everything before it. In a week the Teutons had captured 23,000 guns and 250,000 men. The first stand of the Italians was at the Tagliamento, where they endeavored to hold back the invaders, but were forced three days later to continue their retreat to Livenza. Their resistance was stiffening, however, and when they reached the Piave they were at last able to halt their pursuers. The Austro- Germans, however, still achieved further important strategical successes in the mountain region, and pushed their lines forward until they were within 8 miles of the Venetian plain. Here, however, they were compelled to pause. Another attempt to overwhelm the Italians, before snow should come to their aid in blocking the mountain passes, was made on Dec. 3, and resulted in six days of severe fighting, in which the invaders made some real but not vital gains. The offensive then came practically to a halt. Venice had not been ca captured, but important positions had been gained that seemed to promise easy access to the Venetian plain as soon as the coming of spring should permit the resumption of operations on a vast scale. The danger was perceived and to some extent rectified by the Allies during the winter. Veteran forces of British and French troops had been hurried to the relief of the Italians, not only to reinforce their numbers, but to strengthen their morale, which had been shaken by the disaster they had suffered. While the latter were reorganizing and rehabilitating their forces, the French and Brit ish, under the direction of General Fayolle and General Plumer respectively, carried out brilliant local actions in the mountains and on the Piave that greatly improved the Allied positions. Vigorous attacks in late December and January wiped out Austrian salients on Monte Tomba and on the Piave, and closed the gates through which the next Austro-German movement was expected. Conditions in the polyglot Empire of the Hapsburgs were very bad in the spring of 1918. The food situation especially was menacing, and repeated cuts were made in the already meager rations doled out to the people e. The promised . supply of cereals from the Ukraine did not materialize, except to a very limited degree. Political conditions were chaotic, owing to the inability of the Gov. ernment to satisfy the claims of the various racial elements that made up the Empire. There was a vast war weariness, and all that the majority of the population sorely wanted was peace and bread. Peace was sought by Count Czernin in a conciliatory and moderate speech that he delivered to the Vienna City Council, which was in effect a reply to an address of President Wilson on war aims. He defended the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which had been scathingly denounced by the American President, and declared himself to be in agreement with many of the latter's principles. A maladroit reference to peace discussions, which, he said, had occurred between France and Austria, on the initiative of the French Bust Premier, Clemenceau, gave rise to one of the most sensational diplomatic incidents of the war. The charge was hotly denied by Clemenceau, who declared that the first step had been taken by Austria, and who, in the discussion that arose, produced a letter written by Emperor Charles himself to a relative by marriage, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon, in which he referred to "France's just claim regarding Alsace-Lorraine." The publication of the letter produced great tension between Berlin and Vienna and Charles was forced to make humiliating explanations before the breach between the governments was closed. Matters were made still worse by a great military disaster on the Italian front. The German drive in Picardy had been halted, and the dimmed prestige and morale of the Central Powers required a victory in other fields. The Austrian commanders were so confident that this would be achieved, that they had medals struck in advance, commemorating their imagined triumphal entry into Venice. They had an army of over 1,000,000 men, and they fully expected to repeat the victory of Caporetto over the supposedly disheartened Italian army. On June 15, they made an attack on a front of 97 miles, reaching from the Asiago Plateau to the sea. Their superiority in numbers gained them some initial advantages, and by the 18th they had extended their line over the Montello Plateau to Casa Serena. On the 19th, however, the Italians assumed the initiative, and before long they were driving the invaders back in headlong retreat that soon became a rout. The elements were against the Austrians also, as heavy tempests had swelled the Piave at their back, and swept away the bridges over which they sought to make their escape. The carnage was ghastly. Men were drowned by thousands, while a storm of shot and shell harried the fugitives. The Austrian losses in killed, wounded and prisoners exceeded 100,000, and enormous quantities of guns, ammunition, and supplies were left in the hands of the victors. The battle practically closed the campaign for that spring and summer. It was the most terrible disaster that had befallen the Austrian arms up to that time in the war. For the rest of the summer and early fall the opposing armies faced each other, recuperating from their efforts and reorganizing their forces for the last decisive battle. In the interim, Austria, dismayed by her own situation, and the repeated defeats being inflicted upon the Germans, who were being steadily driven back in France and Belgium, was making frantic efforts to secure peace terms before she was utterly overcome in the field. The story of her "peace offensive" has been fully described in another part of this work. Her efforts, however, were fruitless, and the issue had to be decided by the arbitrament of arms. On Oct. 24, the Italians attacked in the Piave and Monte Grappa regions. For scarcely 24 hours, the Austrians resisted, and then their lines gave way everywhere. Soon all pretense of fighting vanished, and the retreat became a debacle. Whole regiments and brigades were captured. By Nov. 3 the Italians had captured 5,000 guns and over 300,000 prisoners in one of the most overwhelming victories of modern times. On that date the Austrian commander applied for an armistice, which was granted, the terms going into effect on the following day. On Nov. 11, Emperor Charles, following the example of the Kaiser, abdicated and removed to the castle of Eckhartsau, from which he afterward went into exile in Switzerland. Disintegration set in immediately, The Empire fell apart like a house of cards. There had never been a real bond of national feeling to hold together the conglomerate races that composed it. On Nov. 15 the Republic of Czecho-Slovakia was established, with Prague as its capital. It embraced the former Austrian crownlands of Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia, together with part of Hungary. The area was four times that of Belgium. Its economic resources were great, as before the war it had furnished 60 per cent. of Austrian iron and 83 per cent. of the coal of the Empire. Thomas G. Masaryk was chosen as its first President, Nov. 19, and a loan of $7,000,000 was negotiated with the United States. Jugoslavia also sprang into existence at the dissolution of the parent state. It Herzewas a confederation of Bosnia, govina, Croatia, Slovenia, and Dalmatia with of the former Austrian territory Montenegro and Serbia, the latter to be the leading member. On Dec. 1 the office of ruler was offered to Prince Alexander of Serbia and accepted by him. The new government was recognized by the United States Feb. 7, 1919. Hungary also broke its partnership with Austria, and the Hungarian People's Republic was proclaimed Nov. 16, 1918, with Karolyi as Provisional President. The Cabinet that was formed, however, proved unable to cope with the terrible conditions that were the aftermath of the war and resigned in January, Karolyi himself soon afterward its example. The Communist following elements gained control, and a reign of under the Bela terror was inaugurated Kun régime. See HUNGARY. Little else than Vienna was left to Austria proper after it had thus been stripped of its richest provinces. On 1882, and incorporated in 1887. It is Nov. 13, two days after the Emperor's deabdication, the National Assembly without a president. Any person who manded the creation of a republic of German that should bear the name to literature, or of creditable literary Austria, and arrangements were made Constituent for the election of a National to membership. Assembly on the basis of universal suf frage. That election took place on Feb. 16, 1919, and the new body proceeded to frame a constitution. A desire prevailed to unite with Germany, but this was later forbidden by the Peace Conference. The framing of the peace treaty with Germany took so much time that it was June 2, 1919, before the Austrian terms were handed to the Austrian delegates at St. Germain-en-Laye, a suburb of Paris. The treaty followed closely the was lines of the German treaty. Austria compelled to recognize the new states of Czecho-Slovakia, Jugoslavia, and Hungary, and to cede large portions of her remaining territory to Italy and Poland. 50,- Of her former population of about 000,000, she lost 43,000,000, and her area of 240,000 square miles was former reduced proportionately. She renounced accepted the her extra-European rights, League of Nations covenant and agreed to demobilize her aerial forces. Other economic and political concessions were demanded by the Treaty, which bore state. As in heavily on the vanquished the case of Germany, the Austrians protested vigorously against what they terms called the harshness of the Allied , but after several months of correspondence and counter-proposals the treaty was signed Sept. 10, 1919. An additional that the proviso made by the Allies was the title of new state must abandon "German Austria" and adopt that of "The Republic of Austria." The economic condition of Austria after the war was worse than that of any other of the vanquished Powers. During the winter of 1919-1920, the inhabitants of Vienna were on the actual brink of starvation. Help was afforded by the nations of Europe and especially by the United States, and the people were tided through until the harvests of 1920 helped to bring about a restora- See tion to more normal conditions. RELIEF, WAR.
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
a monarchy in the heart of Europe. It is composed of the empire of Austria and the kingdom of Hungary. Area, 241,333 square miles. Population, 45,405,267. The government was organized on its present basis in 1867, following closely on the heels of the Seven Weeks' War . Austria agreed to the present plan rather than have the Hungarians draw out altogether. The Austrian Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom are independent, except that they have a common monarch and unite for certain purposes expressly agreed upon. Each has its own constitution, its own legislature, and its own executive departments. Francis Joseph is emperor of Austria and the king of Hungary. He is also king of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Forty members of the Austrian lower house and twenty members of the Austrian upper house constitute a joint committee on Austro-Hungarian affairs. Forty members of the lower Hungarian house and twenty members of the upper Hungarian house, however, form a corresponding Hungarian committee. These two committees are known as delegations. The king of Austria-Hungary, acting as emperor of Austria and king of Hungary, summons these delegations to meet one year at Vienna, the next at Budapest. They deliberate in separate chambers, communicating in writing. If, after three attempts, they do not agree in passing a bill, they meet together and act as one body, settling the matter under discussion by a majority vote. The affairs common to the two states, that is to say, belonging to the government of Austria-Hungary, are three: 1. Foreign affairs. 2. Military and naval affairs. 3. National finance. There are three corresponding ministries, the ministry of foreign affairs, the ministry of war, and the ministry of finance. There is, in addition, a court of public accounts. The ministers are responsible to the delegations. The organization of the army in a general way corresponds to that of Germany, but it is peculiar, in that Hungary maintains an army, Austria maintains a third army. The military forces of the two states may very properly be called militia. The prominent feature of the whole organization, however, is that every young man must perform two or three years of active military service away from home, and, in addition, report for drills and such other duties as may be required long enough to bring his entire service up to twelve years. Soldiers who have finished their active duty are known as reserves. They are held in readiness to be called upon in case of war. The great amount of military service required of the young men is one reason for emigration. The Austria-Hungarian army numbers about 350,000 men. Money is reckoned in crowns. A crown is worth about twenty cents. The annual expenditure of the dual monarchy, including military expenditure, is about $86,000,000. The king has an annual salary or civil list of about $4,500,000. One-half is paid him as emperor of Austria out of the revenues of Austria; the other half as king of Hungary out of the revenues of Hungary. The present monarch is Emperor Francis Joseph who is popular with both peoples; but the two nations do not get on together in all respects. There is a wide difference in language, race, and temperament. They are likened to an ox and a horse yoked to the same plow. The joint parliament is said to be a cockpit in which the representatives of many diverse race elements fight out their race antipathies. The race issues within the Austrian end of the kingdom are hardly less acute. Bohemian, Pole, and German have differences of their own. It is predicted freely that the Germanic or up-river element, that is to say, the Austrians, will some day pull away and seek admission as a state of the new German Empire . See Hungary ; Austria 2026 Editor's Note: This sprawling dual monarchy had only a few years left: the assassination of its heir, Archduke Franz Ferdinand , at Sarajevo in 1914 lit the fuse of the First World War, which the empire lost. In 1918 it shattered into Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and more — one of history's great multinational states simply erased from the map. (Ed: BR 2026-07-01)