Egypt
Egypt names 4 different subjects across the 6 encyclopedias on this shelf. Each is set out below.
Egypt a country in the N
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
a country in the N. E. of Africa, extending from the Mediterranean to the first cataract of the Nile at 1 Assuan, from 24° 6' to 31° 36′ N. lat. Area, exclusive of the Sudan, 350,000 square miles. Population (1917) 12,- 750,918, exclusive of nomad Bedouins. Capital, Cairo; pop. (1917) 790,939. Geologically and ethnologically, it is confined to the bed of the flooded Nile and occupies little more than 11,000 square miles. The Nile, after breaking through the rocky barrier at Assuan, pursues a N. course, varied only by one considerable bend near Thebes, till, a few miles N. of Cairo, it divides into two main streams, terminating in the Rosetta and Damietta mouths, through which, after a course of 3,300 miles, it pours during "high Nile," about 700,- 000,000,000 cubic meters daily into the Mediterranean Sea. The other five mouths which existed in antiquity, have silted up; the triangular district inclosed by them, supposed by the ancients to have been recovered from the sea, formed the delta, now called Lower Egypt. Climate. The climate is remarkably mild, especially S. of the desert. The temperature in winter in the shade averages 50° to 60° F., and in the heat of summer 90° to 100° in Lower Egypt, 10° higher in the upper valley. From Juno till February cool N. winds prevail, then till June comes a period of E. or hot S. sandwinds, called the Khamasin or "Fifties" (blowing 50 days). The most remarkable phenomena is the regular increase of the Nile, fed by the fall of the tropical rains. The state of the Nile marks the season more accurately than the variation of temperature. Except in the dry air of the valley and desert, Egypt is not remarkably healthy; because of the occasional visitations tations of plague and cholera, ophthalmia, diarrhea, dysentery, and boils. Geology. Egypt is separated from Nubia by a low hilly region about 50 miles broad from N. to S. and composed A DAHABEAH OF THE NILE, EGYPT of granitic rocks. The same crystalline rocks extend up the shore of the Red Sea to near the opening of the Gulf of Suez, stretching inland for fully 30 miles. The scenery in this district is wild and rude. The granitic region terminates at Assuan, the ancient Syene, whence most of the materials for the colossal monuments of Egypt were procured. The Arabian and Libyan ranges, on the right and left of the river, are alike composed of cretaceous strata, the predominant rock being sandstone, which is durable and easily worked. Natural History. - The signal peculiarity of the vegetation of the Nile Val- B C D TROPOLI Rasel Mith Jordan R. ME ITERRANEAN Nazaretho Gulf of Solum Bosra Gulf of Bu Sheifa Kasr Shama Ras Bulau Jaffa A E Jerusalem Damietta Rosetta Wady Sirhan Dead Alexandria, Gaza Port Said Kafo Sea Kasr el Ajdebiah S el Melkhat --- El Arish Abulaha Danmanhur Ghukah a TantaheMansourab Wady el Araba Oasis Dismend Abu Selim Wady Zaga Natrun Kasrel Jedeiro Ismailiya Jeb Makhrah LOWER EGYPT Shobak Maan Suez 30 -30 Ain Uara Maghara Giza CAIRO Jarabub PYRAMIDS Kelaa Rirket el Qurun Gulf of Suez Sherm% Akabah • Gara ARABIA debel et Tih Masha o Fayum G. of Akaban Siwa Beni Suef Raiyan Kelaa Medowara o B.Ghartein Feshno Oasis Siwa Sinai Ainus Abu Girga R Behnesa Dhat el Haj (Jupiter Ammon) Kasr Bawiti Zubo Convent Makna Hawid 0 Oasis of Bahriya Minia Tor Tebuk Beni Hasan El Hez Jeb. Garib Roda Muwela LIBYAN Mellawi Nile Ras Ain el Wadi Jebel Sharr 2 Mohammed 2 Monfalut DESERT Siba Oasis of Farafra N Assiout Darel YPT Jeb. Um Delpha Kasr Farafra EG IA O Sherm Antar Tahta Ekhmim Bir es Sidd 0 el Weis N Girga Kena Nagh Hamadi RUINS OF Kosseir Farshut El Kasr Ballat Kharga Jeb. Abu Tiur Kuss Rizqat THEBES Akra Muto Bulaq Esnad Oasis of Dakhla Mirsa Sebara لا Oasis of Kharga El Kab el el Haura 25 EGYPT Edfu Redesiya Jeb Sebara Ras Mehar Beris Jeb Radwa Mex Dush Kom Ombo Jeb. Hammada ABYSSINIA • Darau Oasis of Kurkur Ass 1st Cataract Ras Benas Yanbo hellal Om el Lotef el Bahr AND Qartassic Darmut Dunguno Kalabsha Halfaha Kasr Ibrin Dirve Seyala W. Dafaeh TROPIC OF CANCER SH Madal Dakka NORTHEASTERN TEMPLE Maharraqa Toski (Toshka) Mirsa Shab Sherm El-Sebua AFRICA 3 Korosko Haimar E'Shebb Jeb. Elba Wady Faras O Allagi C. Elba Wady Halfa Tewfikiya SCALE OF STATUTE MILES NNUBIANN Jeb. Soturba 2nd Cataract 50. 0 100 200 300 Galgabbo Semna SCALE OF KILOMETERS Sonkio IAN Bir Sufir Mirsa Dongola 200 300 100 Selima 400 500 Akash W.Haier MAKAUR 1. Jeb. Irba DESERT Sakiet Amara Dubadip Important towns are shown in heavy face type el Abd Tinara Shikr Bir Hebeb Railways shown thus Canals Bir Absa Gurgutti 20 J. Bawartie 3rd Cataract Kaibar W. Amori Oasis or W. el Kab Hannek & Kerma (BEJA) Abu Hammad Port Sudan Mirsa TER AKRO 1. B Kederwab Otao el Orda o Shebeb ESAHARA OR Tamai 4th Cataract Selmi Khannak Abu Ekla Abu-Hashim Kokveb) 5th Cataract Khandak Karakol Sinkat • Genenitta JESIRA Tokar Merowe B. el Bak Old GREAT DESERT DESERT Dongola Baraka Berber ✔ Kenur Korti FRENCH el Debba Ambukol Atbara KABABISH ARABS Adororit ed Daman Nakhela 4 B. el Bayuda p W. Boro April 8th 1898 Sotaire Atbara P Abu Klea Jeb. Kureb W. Billia S Metamma Meroe Baaluk da now Ain Hamedo W.Shek hele Shendi 6th Cataract el Gash oel Dabba Goserujup Shabluka Jeb. el Mardfibeyat TamaniatMEROE d Kerreri Xa Haltaya Gos Rejeb Fillik Wady Malik or Melk Taka SOGHAWA 2nd Sept. 1898 Blue Kamlin es Safih KHARTUM Kissala Omdurman Bayareya el Seribe Abdalla Wasa Jeb. Medob el Fasher Hamran 15 20 el Getena ISLAND DAR El Alaga B EGYPTIAN TAKONAWIANGLO Tomat Hegera hkabia O Abu Haraz Kaja W. Sunot Wad Medani Om Bedr Suk Abu KORDOF A Nel Kawa S Rahad Turjoe Kay Kobe d Gedaref El Fasher Dueim ennar Barao o Foja Jeb. Maria W. el Koh Dabaina Faqih Kohi Sennar Foja El Obeid Hable Kalaba Kol Kol White Nile Tura Melbeiso Dar-Abu-Dali Karkojo Abiad Martafal Abu Shikele Dinde A Bahr el Azr Kasghil 5 el Birket Fu o Tawaisha Dar Taqalla DARFUR Sunguki A Birkewea A Dark-el-Birket Roseres Darra Kadero Darel Gendi Bulbul D. Kegu G Om Delgal Funj Dorgar DB AAN G S U Dar Nuba LINK LUK SHILK C eFamaka Sigela Dar Dar-Abu-Dima Kinien Dar Abu-Uma Ke-ilahN Tira Mandi Wibra Fazok Shekka Barajaus el Dileh S Mellem U D A Gomasha HFashoda Kue Khor el gar BAGGARA Taimo Dar Min Dango Of Fertit Bahr BIZIGHAT Ghazal NoGaidacho 10 el Hokrahel Kirin Gorgura (Kodok) Arab Marpa Yawash KUAJ Nahas, Bahr Bahr el Mts Om Gedoo Mt. Ego Nur Agara Goboo DARFERTIT Bahr el Homr NUER Amol Shala Katuaka Gondu Dannaba TH Nassara Baro Mt. Jila Meshra-of- Kuru Pongo Liffi Rek Elyab Nasr Gatta h B Bajangwe Dem Daud Rohl Valodo a Gore Mts. Tondi Dok Faro em Ziber BOS Gatta Ganda S.Wau 6 Nam Ajuara Jur Ghattas JENGOR Bonga FRENCH Such Dem Bekir وسلي Foro Gaba Shambeh L. Tato Rumbekh Songo Gambo Juba DINKA Ghaza Baraka Ombanga TEQUATORIAL 1 (Jibbe) Bor Mvole Sango Wambek Ngoli DORR Zuarra Biti Karbora Mere AFRICA Zemio Tambura Bassa Pakuru Beri Pambia Mts. Ugango Rafai 5° 8. Sassa Lado Popo's Gondokoro UGANDA A 25 Longitude 30 B 35 C from East Copyright. J. L. Poates Eng. Co. 1921 Alexandria Mouths of the Nile pamietta Mouth Rosetta Mouth Rosetta Burlus rlus Lake Fareskub Lake Menzalas Abukir Burlus Diba Gemil Abukir Port Said Bay Cultivated Salamih Belga Shirbin L L El Menzala Beru Mareotis Hayit Mehallet Calin el Kevin Mansourah Suez Damanhur Semennud Abu Isthmu Teh el Barudo Mehaltet Rub Qantara Shequq Tantaly Salihiya Balah of Lakes Vin Abu Kebiro Mariam El Furdan Medina Kiffari Sue Zagazig Ismailiya Shibin-el-Komo Mit Bera L.Timsah Ramses LIBYAN Tussum Water Tel-el-Kebir Sta. Canal Sto Serapeum Menuf Natrun Wady Lakes Nat. Do Benha el Asl Bitter run La Der Faramus Shibin el Qanater Barrage Staro DESERT Siryaqus Post Road el Menashi El Merg Shaluf Sta Wadu Faragh Bulaq Abbasiya Suezo Giza CAIRO Jebel Ataqa PYRAMIDS Bedrashen LOWER EGYPT Baths of Helwan MEMPHIS RUINS Helwan SCALE OF MILES G. ARABIAN DESERT 0 30 Sue Shaguo 40 ° NILE Battle of the Ciccolani Zawiya 25- Pyramids Bulagiya Can. Malali el Hamra BAILWAY Palace: July-21st 1798 Tusun Embaba BRIOGE El Medina Palace el Kamra Cairo el Khobba 2 Mit Uqba Sta Fountain Bulag Bedr-Honem Bab el-Huseniya 이 Sta. el Dureibeh Waterworks Gezireh Mastura el Sufeineh Palace Hotel Bab en Nasr Rabegh El Ash GEZIRET 3 Barquq BULAQ el Kolea o G Sta. Bursbey Guardhouse Qait Bey Kholajs E Khawand Tombs of t Sta. Helwan/Sta. Serrua Khalifs CAIRO Jidda Mecca Water Palace Ras Rawai Works Old Sta Zumur Citadel GEZIRET RODA Mirsa Salaka Fort Mosque of Viceregal Palace Zen el-Abden Cartridge Hawitira Masr Tombs of the Factory 20 and Museum El Atiqa Mamelukes Canal Sheikh (OLD CAIRO) Barud Giza com Roman Fortress) Tombs of Sta. Khedivial Suakin Nilometer Babylon Family (Mikyas) (Greek & Coptic Monast.) el Imam el Tib Madabgh Sta. Shafih Bakiai B. Sewage Works Ras Kasar CAIRO AND VICINIT Der et-Tin SCALE OF MILES 4 Sta Bir Kabr el Shekh 0 1 Azarato E 45° F Knor • Sade 4 anscla Ans Nakia HARMIL IS FARISAN IS. Jaf RABI R Kelbetu HARAT L Khamr NORAH DAHLAK Keren Mareb MISUAR Massana Bisha the Sana KAMARAN 1. Amideb Hawakil B. Debaroa Bla B Aressa Hodeidap Senafe Reda Tigre Hamfilah R Yerim Aksumo Adigrat Takase Adua Noggara beл HANISH Edd Mt. Saghe IS. Tezo Makalle Mocha Dhala Ras Dashan Antalo VAFAR Bailul Merdibba Matama Babel Mande ULF Assab OR Jeb Kharas Gondar DANAKIL Aden Rahoita Sokoto PERIM (Br.) Golima Debra Lallbala Gohum FRENCH Obok L-Tana ana Tabor volcajura Bay Aus OF Mt.Guna Biedehor MUSHA IS. Hedele SOMALI- Amhara Tauta, Jibuti Gubo Zeila A DEN Galamo Thai Magdala Ancharo Belia LAND Hadu Kuraniali Mota Godara o Aasiosfatra Mt.Kollo Gatira pasuen Killela Adado Gojam Sumaduo Koktara Dhora Waroll BAN t. Elmes Liche Laliballiordildoba BRITISH Bar Egu Darmi Hederhed Angolala Ankober jeb Ahmar Dit Dire Ahmar Jigjiga Moga Medir Kobboo Jallanko Harar SOMALILAND Antotto ADIS ABEBA Roggle Hardagn Badu Bubasen Babagobo Faradayroo Leka Dum Gabaro Mt. Egan Milmil PDerba (V Brer Dagahbur Mojer Darror Saka Magna Wabi Luku Larkei L. Dembel Bolarli Kurati L Sidama Lo G AL.Hogga Sheikh Husain Tus Omoo Warandah Meoro L.Lamina Ginea o Kaffa ORoLogb, Laga Bodewen Cheka Qucen Margherita Faf Lako Lo Abaya Imi Guldumbas Burka A Buta Berdale Shebeli Barri Doria Webi Ganale 10 Bodle Greenwich E 40 H 135° ( MALAY ARCHIPELAGO SCALE OF STATUE 0 50 100 200 300 SCALE OF KILOMETERS 100 200 400 Important towns are shown in Capitals shown thus Railways Telegraphs POSSESSIONS Dutch German Portugese CAGLE TO GUAM C A SEGUEIRAS IS. PELEW IS. (German) ANGAURO PILLILU SONSEROL 1 (ST.ANDREW) PULO ANNA ۱۰۰ CURRENT/ PULO MAFIERE 1. WARREN HASTINGS) HELEN REEF TOBI M E L DUTCH POSSESSIONS 01. PANTIS. ERA) MAPIA AJU IS. PEGUN ANTA Dampier Str. C. Wau Manokvari (Dore Saukorem WAIGEU NUMFOR Surong Arfak Mt PASAL NUMFOR SALAWATI C. Sele Sari SAMBARPON Subra PC Tabim RON DARAM IS. Bern or HeCluer Geclvink Mansela S Napan IS B Sibu Bula V. Genoto Varu KARAS IS. ONIN pba mrau B. Ina B. GLAUT IS Nautilus Str GOROM 18. Lakahia B. ADI WATU BELAIS. 2 C.Steenboom KEI IS. KOLA EA Elat BWOKAM 1. LIT. KE SI GA Maikor, KEI KOBACOR INA TERANGAN BARKAI Kre DJIN IS, WULIARUM LARAT ENU Lelingluwan SERAS TIMOR LAUT IS.. Adue SELARU ARAFURA SEA TR AS H 135° J 140° K L ) MILES 400 500 URACCAS 1. ASUNCION I. LINDSAY 800 600 GRIGAN PAGAN I. heavy face type OR MARIANNAD ALAMAGUAN GUGUAN FARALLON DE TORRES and Cables SARIGUAN BEATRICE REEF LADRONE United States ANATAJANBIRD I. VOGEL I. British (German)SEYPAN TINIAN CABLE TO SAN FRANCISCO ISLANDS ROTA OR SARPAN SPANISH Agana GUAM (U.S.) GALVEZ BK 3 ++ ANSON 1. SANTA RO, A REEF C I F I 10 ULUTHI GROUP HUNTER REES KILAP FEYS (TROMELIN) GRIMES I. ELIVI IS YAP I. ISLANDS CAROLINE PIKELA (LYDIA) FURAULEP (German) KAJUNGLE I. NGOLI WEST FAIU PIKELOT I. Kossol Pass MATELOTAS 1. EARL DALHOUSIE BK. LAMOTREK SOROL I. 4 (PHILIP) BAODELTAOB ELATO TUCKER I. OLEIA, WALEA I MALAKAL STA. IFALIK (WILSON) JURIPIK (KAMA) IANTHE SHOAL 5° N A E C 5 A N H 0° EQUATOR SUPIORI S apen ( Jobior Geelvink) Str. SCHOUTEN 13. C. D' Urville COM MERSON 1. KUMAMBA IS. ARIMOA) KANIET GR. Sor Auries Mt. ALLISON (ANACHORET IS.) B. Humboldt NINIGO GR. Valchenuer B. adipi Dore WIAK B. ADMIRALTY IS. PADENA IS. Mokmer LUP OR Rauni AGAMES GR. MANUS I. udari DUROURI, UWE Massiha MATTY 1. GEORGE I JAPEN AWEK STG SAINSON IS. (TIGER I (D'URVILLE) BROISSY KAIRUT 6 LE MAIRE IS. Della Torre B. JESUS MARIE (JOBI) Warent PANAMERA I C. Brécher (LAMBUTIU) Gr. Kirchben Fagai Mt. KREIS REEF VULCAN 1. otsdam Har. Franklin B. Wisarce DUTCH KRAKARI ALBERT REEF (DAMPIER) Charles / Luip Arm Astrolabe B. BAGABAS 1. VICTORIA REEF TEW GUINEA TIMOΠAKA OR TIM KAISER WILHELM TAND Huon G. ephansort LONG I. sebesshande FRENCH T Mts. 5 OCK 1. Wakara B U Modir Pisang Dampier Str. PAT ARRU IS. BRITISH NEW GUINE TRITON BK 'CRETIN IS. Dourga Str. 7 IMAKOWA Hercules B. Ward Sauemika Bongarpab C. Hunt MESSEDA PRINCE Silerakas Kupelika Domandapo For Game Dyke Acland B. FREDERICK HENRY 1. Derbouimka .Nelson Collingwood B. Rakossika RECASTEAUX Souquarja False C. Worukac GULF OF Northeast PAPUA Great Biminka AMANBY Port Moresby ge Huk Chan. Pandora Pass. sien Stre THURSDAY I "EASTERN FIELDS GREAT South C MORESSY IS, CLARENCE Torres Strait BARRIER ORAL Endeavour StUEENSLAND REEF C. York PR. OF WALES C SEA A A J 140° K L 145° 95° A 100° B 105° C 110° D Yunnan Kweilin N Wuchau Nanning Canton Si-kiang 2. Mandalay Mreng BURM NKIN RI Bacninh Salwen 20 HANOI ENC GULF OF Hainan Str. Luang- Prabang A TONKIN inh HELENA Utaradit 2. METN R. C. Bastion Nong-kh Mekong ANGOON 0 S PARACEL IS. & REEFS Gulf of Moulmein Menam AMPHITRITE IS. SD Martaban Hue CRESCENT/IS.. R BAYO F MACCLESFIELD Qurane 15 BANK BUR Korat Bassak Tavoro C Khong BANGKOK Phu-Y Battambang R Mereni 3 Chantabun IN A T M Kratie MERGUI Khanh-hoa CAMBODIA ARCH. BENGAL Prom-perih MUGULF OF 09 0 Cholon MINERVA Bk. 10 KRA COCHIN TIZARD BANK CHINA Mouths of the SIAM., Mekong R. FIERY CROSS H PEARSON C.Camau CONDORE I LONDON REEFS T INVESTIGATOR 4 To Madras AMBOINA C ORCEF VANGUARD CANK Singora RIFLEMAN BANK SWALLOW RF. Lho Seumawe CHARLOTTE BK. Samalanga P Diamond Pt. ROYAL CHARLOTTE Sig 0 Georgetow 0 (Penang) NORTH LUCONIA di S REEF as POSSESSIONS CHIN DUTCH 10 Seruwai enom SOUTH LUCONIA LABUAN 2 eulaboh Brandan NORTH NATUNA REEF Serba Langit Tebing Tinggi Brunel NORTH NATUNA IS. Susu Deil C. Baram STRAITE Medan OF BUNGURAN Rantau Prabat SETTLEMENTS Miri Tampat Tuan Claudetown (GR.NATUNA) JAMES BK. Niah Pekan Sinzke L. Tooba Labuan Bilik Bale Tarumun BOUNDARY IMEULU Bintulu Mi Pemudo SUBI IS. (BABI) 5. Mukah Balige Vola ANAMBAS IS. RNO Bellagi Malazka SOUTH NATUNAJIS. Barus BANYAK IS Matu Bobas North C Siboga Rejang Kapit Tebang Datu B. Kuring Re Batang Taro RIOU Rejang Singapore Kapoews Padang Bengkalis Panjabungan Sidempuan (Sarawak A NIAS VICTORY 1. Sambas S Singkawang Mt. et Sarebas Sink Natal RIOU Mt.Nijaan Mts. Rau TAMBELAN IS ARCH Bengkajang Sanggau PINI 0 Lampar 2 A verbang is BATU IS Mt Ophide Kook- Keria SEBANGKA Moba RN MU Baban EQUATOR Pontianak T RIOU Sintang Siberut Str. Priaman Solole Solok Ringato Hota Sungai Kakap LINGA ARCH WEST BORNEO Kota Berllala Str. Kubu Schwane Maleweh Padang Talang Baru Saran Me M SIBERUT C.Jabung MAYANG Balik Sumparg Painano Jambi Ma. Kompeh Balik N (Sukadanar Ka. Kuru KARIMATA IS Korintji Pk. PALEMBANG grabat R. Seaflower Str. Indrapura Karri Ka 6 Mandjul A SIPORA auty Roja Mt. Muntor BANKA Ketapang Pankalan Pinang mata Silaut Sivora Str. NORTH POGGY Moko Moto Pandan Mt. Sekaju Boncil Kasungan ア Te Pandan Kolla Toboah Ig Rawi Hous Suru Billiton Kendawangan Sampit SOUTH POGGYY B. Telaga Pulapuas BILLITON H Lai Langun Palembang Ka Gaspar Str. C. Sambar SANDING Matuwa Lahat Benkulaamuk 18. S Sampit B. Pulo / Laut Kahayan R. I C. Puting C.Malatyor Lintang Kol Mn. Dun Mengala Lubu Martapu C. Mana Pasar Bintuhan C. Salatan PRINCES jer BATAVIA V LAMPONGS Sugih A E Acid leester Cornelis Krawang Gunung Cru Kota Agung elok Betung ENGANO Ph Sukadal JAVA IS IMON ARENDS 1. N Indramaju Blimbing Purwakarta Samarang Pekalongan SOLOMBO IS. BAWEAN Surabaya Bandung at Cheribon Mt. Tjerimat Japara Rembang Sunda Str. KRAKATAO Pamakasan Selang MADURA Tegal Grissee Tuban Wynkpops Bay Buitenzorg Genteng Barang KANGEAN IS. Panaruken 7 KALAPA N Pasiriano dura Str Magelo D Mt. Slamat C. Sindang Surakarta Kediri Banjuwangle Bali Str. Kebumen Tulung Agung 0~0 ☑ Purwored joo Chilatjap Pameungpeuk Jokyokarta o Negara Trengaleko To Madagascar BALIAN Tabaran LOMBOK Lombok Str: Pachitano Mt. Semeru D I LOMBOK Sisi BLAMBANGAN PEN 10 A A I CHRISTMAS I. S 00 L (Br) N C A 1005 B 105° C 110° 115 ° D Copyright. T. L. Poates Eng. Co., 1921 115° E 120° 125° F G Kelung A An: Changchan (TAIWAN) Tainan Hongkong (British) South C Bashi Channe A BATAN IS PRATAS CATAN SABTAN E Balintang Channel BABUYAN 15. Abul 0 C. Engano C.Bojeador P arri Laoag Pa H Vigan Bontoruegarao Bangu gan S. Fernand Cervant Lingayen Gul bong C. Bolina (United States) A TRURO BANK Sta. Cru 9 Balet L 91 POLILLO SCARBOROUGH PANILA Balan SHOAL CATANDUANES Manila Bay CALAGUAS IS. vite S. Bernardino Str. Bauan Caceres ue Mayo Vol. Sta. Cro SP Romblon MINDOR Catubig Mindoro Str TABLAS SIBUYAN CALAMIANES oran Capiz Borongan . Jabuli QUYOS IS. PAN A Ley SAMAR FLAT 1. A Faytay GEAHORSE RF. Tacloban CEBU LEYTE DUMARAN S.JO LAW Surigao Str. Ce LORD AUCKLAND BK. Barbacan GUIMARAG Carda DINAGAT Malan L NE SIARGAO Pto. Princesa BOHOL SUFLAN G BOMBAY BK. Tagbilaran CAGAYANES Victoria Pk. Cantilan Dumaguet CAMIGUIN Mt. Mantalingayan Canait P Butunn C. Butiluyan Dapita SULU SEA Cagayan Bislig BALADS Balabac Iligan Balabde Str. Sta. Maria DAN Catelviejo BALAMBANGAN BANGUEY CAGAYAN SULU Da Zamboang Caraga Cottaba Kuda Matti Basilan Str. Boncon PANGUTURAN IS, Luzon Leba ABBASILAN IS. Gaya Kini Balu Sandakan C San Au Papar BRITISH TAULATAD IS S Gran Lang-MISANGA C. Tinaca Beaufort NORTH Truson BORNEO Oparvel SULU SARANGANI IS. SIBUTU KARKARALONG IS NA Pt. Elphinstone Mt Magdalena KAR Lawao Mt. Milu SALIBABU SEBITIK I. TAL Guxa Pk KACU SANGI TARAKAN CELEBES Taruna SEA SIAU 1. Bulangan SANGI IS Gg. Taboere. E Kwalu Besa MuSinandaka TAGULANDANS C. Mangkalihat RABIT C. Menade Mt. Kalabat Ta Amurano Tandano Teruate MTempatun Batu P Balang Itang Kwandang BIARO Sambaliong G Busak A Puti Poigar Totok Sangkuliran Moelai Col Doeloepi : Bentang, Sigenti Moeton Paguat DO Dod Kotalangon Gorontalo Gulf of dat Moara Kaman KAJO Seresa Tongaron Samarinda Dongali Tomini GR.TAWALT Batja Papan Bualemo Loli M TOGIAN IS Q Papane Ma.Jawa Pasang Kayo C Bongka Mt. IS.) KicxitongCING StrE R Kaili Adang B. Karossa L. Posso Mt. Tukala CBANCA MANGOLI TALI-ACU S Sarana Amunta LA BALABA Doseni CE Limu SULA IS. Banjermasin C. William Mawudja L. Fawnti a SAL Sakita SULA BEST Wue Palopro aeni Jani Kota Baru Datimodiong Lelewat Nipa Nipa B. StrLAUT W SEBUKU Risikola MANUI BURU Mt. Lajar, LAUT Balang Nipa Masarete Passulor L. Tempe WOWONI Pare Pare Boni Kendari Wowoni-Str. SPERMONDE Polejang Goran ARCH.. MUNA / SIRLIS. Makassa Kal BAN Sindial BUTON Bonthain 'ST. MATHEW I POST Bulekomha KABAENA LUCIPARA SALAYER TUKANG BES IS. Salayer BATU ATU POSTILLON IS. PANDJANG TIGER IS. SUNDA ORFLORES GUN SEA Singa Radja ALOR SOUTHWEST 19 SABALANA IS. TANA JAMPEAT Alor Besar PANTAR LOMBLEN Sumba -Str MORES. KOMBA KALAU TUA BuleERNOSTER TAMBORA MeiSUMBAWA KALAO WE SOLOR ADUNARA orreh Badjak io Maumere Ampenan Hapi Str KOMODO odur IS. Watar Str. Din La SUMBAWA OR Rokka Alas Str Atapupu Endel Batu Lant Kuilacd Sutrana Mt. Allas IMOR Meníboro Noimuti (Port Waingapu SAVU SEA Pariti Loesi SAMAD SUMBA Melolo Seba Babau, Kupang S A SANDALWOO0 1. 02 Roti Str: (Dutch) SAVU IS. Namudale M E ROTTI Long. E F from 125° 120° East ley is the absence of woods and forests. The Pharaohs got their timber chiefly from Lebanon, and modern Egypt is supplied from the forests of Asia Minor. Of flowers, the celebrated lotos, or water-lily, has supplied many ideas to Egyptian architects. The lack of jungle or cover of any sort accounts for the poverty of the Egyptian fauna; the crocodile, like the hippopotamus, is beating a retreat to the tropics. The ordinary beasts of burden are the ass and camel. Serpents are numerous, and among them the dreaded cobra and the cerastes. The Nile is full of fish, of rather poor flavor. Egypt is an agricultural country; in some parts, by the aid of regulated artificial irrigation, the rich alluvial deposit will bear three crops in the year. Wheat is the chief cereal; STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT barley, maize, durra, beans, lentils, and clover are also largely grown with very little trouble. The extensive culture of papyrus, which anciently supplied material for paper, has in modern times been superseded by that of sugar cane, cotton, indigo, and tobacco. Religion. The two main principles on which the religion of Egypt was based appear to have been the existence of an Omnipotent Being, whose various attributes being deified, formed a series of divinities; and the deification of the sun and moon. Each group of divinities formed a triad composed of a chief male deity, with a wife or sister and a son, as Osiris, Isis, and Horus, or Amun, Maut, and Khonso. Among the other gods of the Egyptian Pantheon are Ra, the sun, usually represented as a hawk-headed man; Mentu and Atmu are merely two phases of Ra, the rising and setting sun. The worship of the bull Apis is connected with Osiris. Serapis is the defunct Apis, who has become Osiris. Seth or Set represents the power of evil. Ammon (Egyptian Amen), originally a local god, owed his importance to the greatness of his city, Thebes. Thoth was the chief moon-god, and is generall represented as ibis-headed. Anubis, the jackal-headed, belonged to the family of Osiris, and presided over mummification. Besides these deities, the Egyptians wor worshiped beasts, reptiles, and even vegetables, probably as symbols. Ancient Civilization. When the Egyptians first appeared in history, they were already possessed of a marvelously advanced civilization, which presupposes thousands of years of development, even before the remote period, nearly 4000 B. C., when the pyramid builders reigned. In the sciences, as early as the 4th dynasty the notation of time, and the decimal system of numbers, weights, and measures, and the division of the year were already known, while the form of the buildings implies a knowledge of geometry and its sister sciences. They had also a knowledge of astronomy and chemistry. The art of literary composition existed as early as the 4th dynasty. The language of the period, though concise and obscure, was, nevertheless, fixed. Architecture had attained great refinement. The transport of enormous blocks of stone testifies to an early development of engineer- The statues of the 4th ing skill. carved nearly 4,000 years B. C., dynasty, car were generally conventional, owing to their em employment in architecture; but in portraiture great perfection was attained. Painting appeared at the same age chiefly in tempera or whitewashed surfaces, though fresco was occasionally used. In the art of music, the harp and flute appear in use as early as the 4th, and heptachord and pentachord lyres as the 12th dynasty; besides early as which drums, tambourines, flutes, cymbals, trumpets, and guitars are seen in the 18th, and the natural instrument, the jingling sistrum, in the 4th. Poetry was at all times in use. The civil government was administered by the three highest professions; the priests were distinguished by their superior knowledge, cleanliness, and godliness, and the political and civil government was administered by royal scribes, or secretaries of state, who superintended the revenue, justice, foreign affairs, and all the interests of the executive. Sacred scribes attended to the ecclesiastic interests, and inferior scribes to the local interests. The public works, the collection of grain and of all the linen dues, the cattle, workmen, wells, irrigation, had each their separate superintendents and scribes. The military force, of 410,000 men, at a later period, comprising all arms of the service, was ruled with severe discipline, under the direction of nomarchs, colonels, captains, and lieutenants. History. The Egyptians are the earliest people known to us as a nation, if we except the Chinese. When Abraham entered the delta from Canaan, they had long been enjoying the advantages of a settled government. The arrangement of Egyptian chronology is still a much-disputed point. A list of the kings of Egypt, arranged in 30 dynasties, was given by the by the priest Manetho about 250 . Accord- B. C.; this division is still used ing to tradition Mena or Mones formed the old empire of Egypt and founded its capital Memphis. Three kings, Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura, of the 11th dynasty, built the largest pyramids; the date assigned to these kings by Lepsius is 2800-2700. The shepherd kings were driven out about 1600. With their expulsion began the reigns of those great rulers who built the magnificent temples and palaces at Thebes. Rameses II., or Sesostris, was successful against the neighboring Arabs, and covered Egypt with magnificent buildings. He was probably the Pharaoh who oppressed the Hebrews; the Exodus may have occurred under his son and successor, Maneptah or Merenptah. Under the later Ramessides the Egyptian empire 1 began to decay. Eventually the Ethiopians under Shabak (Sabako) conquered Egypt. For a time it was subject alternately to Ethiopian and Assyrian princes, but in the 7th century the kings of Sais once more restored its independence and prosperity. About 525, Cambyses, King of Persia, overran Egypt, and it remained a Persian province till Persia was conquered by Alexander the Great, 332 B. c. Egypt now became a Greek state. Alexandria was founded as the new Greek capital. On Alexander's death, his general, Ptolemy, took possession of the throne and became the first of a Greek dynasty which for 300 years made Egypt one of the chief kingdoms of the world. Ptolemy Auletes went to Rome to ask help against his subjects, and the famous Cleopatra maintained her power only through her personal influence with Julius Cæsar and Mark Anthony. On the defeat of Mark Anthony by Augustus, 30 b. c., Egypt became a province of Rome. Next arose in Alexandria the Christian catechetical school, which produced Clemens and Origen. On the division of the Roman empire (A. D. 337), Egypt became a province of the Eastern Empire and sank deeper and deeper in barbarism and weakness. It was conquered in 640 A. D. by the Saracens under Caliph Omar. As a province of the caliphs it was under the government of the famous Abbassides. The last dynasty was overthrown by the Mamelukes (1250); the Mamelukes in their turn were conquered by the Turks (1516-1517). The Mamelukes made repeated attempts to cast off the Turkish yoke. Bonaparte led an army of 35,000 French, and defeated them at the battle of the Pyramids, July 23, 1798. The French held Egypt till 1801, when they were driven out by the British under Abercrombie and Hutchinson. On the expulsion of the French a Turkish force under Mehemet Ali Bey took possession of the country. Mehemet Ali, a man of great ability, was made Pasha of Cairo in 1804 and greatly extended the Egyptian territories. At length he broke with se with the Porte, and after gaining a decisive victory over the Ottoman troops in Syria he was in 1839 acknowledged by the Sultan as Viceroy of Egypt, with the right of succession in his family. Under the rule of Said, one of his sons, railways were opened and the cutting of the Suez Canal was begun. In 1882 the "National party" under Arabi Pasha revolted and forced the khedive to flee. On July 11 a British fleet bombarded Alexandria and restored the khedive, and at Tel-el Kebir Arabi's forces were totally crushed on Sudan September 13. A rebellion in the under the leadership of Mohammed Ahmed, the so-called mahdi, now gave the government trouble. In 1883 the mahdi's forces annihilated an Egyptian force under Hicks Pasha in Kordofan. British troops were now dispatched to Suakim and inflicted two severe defeats on the mahdi's followers there. But the abandon British cabinet had resolved to the Sudan; and General Gordon, famous for his work in this district, was sent to effect the safe withdrawal of the garrisons (1884). By this time, the mahdi's forces were strong enough to shut the general up in Khartum. For nearly a year he held the town, but was assassinated (January, 1885) before the relief expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley could reach him. In 1889, Egypt was invaded by 14,000 dervishes , under Wad el N'Jumi, and this army was destroyed at Toski by an Anglo- Egyptian force under General Grenfell. There was no effort to relieve the Sudan from the tyranny of Abdullahi, the mahdi's successor, till 1896, by which time the fanatical faith of the dervishes had decayed and many tribes had become disloyal. Slatin Pasha, who escaped from Omdurman in March, 1895, revealed at Cairo the altered situation, and during the following winter the British Government , as the protector of Egypt, resolved on the reconquest of the Sudan. General Kitchener was given control of the undertaking. In June, 1898, he attacked an army of 18,000, under Mahmud , sent against him, practically annihilated it, and by September 1 arrived in sight of Omdurman. The khalifa attacked, but was repulsed with the loss of almost his entire line of battle. Ascending the Nile The strong hand of Lord Cromer, the British viceroy, prevented , however, any actual outbreak. Under Lord Cromer's rule, great strides were made in the economic and social development of the country. He resigned in 1907 and was succeeded by Sir Eldon Gorst. He made it evident from the beginning of his rule that Great Britain intended to maintain her hold in the country, and there were general manifestations of dissatisfaction, including the assassination of the Egyptian Prime Minister. The government took repressive measures which were effective. In 1911 Sir Eldon Gorst died and was succeeded by Lord Kitchener, who at once undertook the pacification of the country by economic reform. 1911 At the outbreak of the World War, Great Britain at once declared Egypt to be a British protectorate, thus ending the suzerainty of Turkey . Sir Arthur McMahon was appointed High Commissioner. Abbas Hilmi was removed as Khedive, and was succeeded by his TEMPLE OF PHILE, EGYPT with gunboats after the battle, Kitchener found Captain Marchand holding Fashoda, which he had seized by order of the French Government. threats of war from England, Marchand was in November ordered to evacuate Fashoda. Under In 1904, an agreement was made between France and Great Britain, by which France pledged itself to permit Great Britain a free hand in the occupation of Egypt. A movement for Egyptian nationalism developed in the early part of the 20th century, and continued to grow in importance. Nationalist party was Mustapha Kemal as leader, and various conflicts with the English officials gave strength to the Nationalist movement. The formed with father's brother, Hussein Kemal, who was made Sultan. The measures undertaken and carried on by Lord Kitchener had proved remarkably beneficial. These included constitutional reforms, and extensive changes in the judicial procedure. The Suez Canal was one of the vital points of defense. At the outbreak of the war, ways and means were taken to strengthen it on the anticipation of a strong attack against it. These fears were realized. Turkish forces undertook a campaign against the canal in January, 1915. They were commanded by German officers.. The attacks were repelled with great losses and the army under the Turks withdrew to Palestine. Although this prevented for a time attacks on the canal, military operations continued and several important battles were fought. The chief of these was at Romani. The Turkish force was defeated by the English and Australian troops. Operations were carried thro on throughout this year under great difficulties, and the Sinai desert was finally cleared of Turkish troops. During the progress of the war, the Egyptian Nationalists continued to cause trouble and demanded permission to submit their claims to the British Government. In 1919 the Nationalists placed obstacles in the way of the formation of a new government. British officials were forced to deport the vice-president of the Assembly and three other leaders to Malta. This was followed by riots in several cities. In March, 1919, General Allenby, who had been appointed Special High Commissioner arrived in Cairo and at once released several revolutionists from prison and temporarily restored order. There were further outbreaks, but conditions had gradually readjusted themselves by the end of 1919. In spring of 1920 a mission headed by Lord Milner was sent to Egypt for the purpose of inquiring into conditions and recommending reforms. The Egyptian Nationalists had sent a delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris, but it was not given a hearing. The Milner mission concluded its work in April, 1920. It recommended several changes in the formation of government, including the retention of the Sultan as titular head, and the return of a bi-cameral legislature. It recommended that the Upper House should consist of members partly elected directly and partly nominated, and the Lower House should be entirely elected. A sweeping thorough remodeling of the Egyptian Government and a sweeping reduction of British oficials was advised. The Nationalists continued disturbances and several of their leaders were arrested in July for an attempt to assassinate the Premier. Law and Justice. - There are 90 summary tribunals, 8 central courts and a Court of Appeals at Cairo. "Cantonal" Courts composed of villaye notables- 2,360. By an act of 1905, serious offenses, and by Act of 1910, press offenses, are tried at Central Courts. Finances. Revenue 1919-1920 (estimated) £28,850,000. Expenses: £28,- 850,000. In April, 1919, the sectional debt was £93,388,640. There is a National bank at Cairo, an Agricultural bank, 8 Mortgage banks and 5 ordinary banks, one P. O. Savings bank and 12 rural. Education. Of indigenous schools, known as "Maktabs" there were in 1918 3,534. Teachers, 6,582, attendance, 209,- 186. In 1919 under Government direction and of departments there were 275 schools. There are schools of law, military, agriculture, veterinary, police, and for cadis; a reformatory for boys and one for girls. The Azhar University at Cairo for higher education is the greatest Moslem institution of its kind in the world. Agriculture. In 1917 areas cultivable 7,932,077 feddans (=1.038 acre) cotton is the chief crop. 2,633,539 acres that could be reclaimed. In 1918, the wheat crop was 874,720 tons; barley 214,916 tons; and maize, millet and rice were also produced on a large scale. Cotton 5,019,689 gantars (=99.05 lbs.). Commerce. Merchandise (1918) imports £51,155,306. Exports, £45,379,020. Imports from U. S. (1918) £491,326. Exports £4,286,318. Communication. In March, 1919, - Egypt had 2,339 miles of rails, double and single. There were 726 miles of privately owned roads, exclusive of Sudan to Khartoum R. R.-375 miles. Telegraph and telephone systems, 6,311 miles. Post-offices and stations 2,485. EGYPTOLOGY. See ARCHEOLOGY.
Egypt To the peoples of antiquity as well as to those of the modern world
An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1920)
To the peoples of antiquity as well as to those of the modern world, Egypt appeared as the very mother of magic. The reason for this widespread belief is not far to seek. In Egypt the peoples of the ancient world found a magical system much more highly developed than anything within their native knowledge, and again the cult of the dead with which Egyptian religion was so deeply imbued, appeared to the stranger to savour strongly of magical practice. It must be borne in mind that, if the matter of the magical papyri be omitted, the notices which we possess of Egyptian magic are almost wholly foreign, so that it is wiser for a proper understanding of Egyptian occultism to derive our facts concerning it from the original native sources as far as is possible. Like all other systems, the magic of the Egyptians was of two kinds, that which was supposed to benefit either the living or the dead, and that which has been known throughout the ages as "black" magic or necromancy. The contents of the Westcar Papyrus show that as early as the fourth dynasty, the working of magic was a recognised art in Egypt, but in reality we must place the beginnings of Egyptian magical practice in neolithic times. Throughout the centuries magical practice varied considerably, but the principal means for its working remained the same. That is to say, the Egyptians relied for magical effect upon amulets, magical figures, pictures, and formulæ, magical names and ceremonies, and the general apparatus of the occult sciences. The objects for which magic was exercised were numerous. It exorcised storms, protected against wild beasts, poison, disease, wounds, and the ghosts of the dead. One of the most potent methods of guarding against misfortune of any kind was the use of Amulets . It must not be assumed that all ornaments or objects discovered on the mummy are of magical potency. These are frequently the possession of the Ka or double (q.v.), necessary to its comfort in a future existence. The small crowns, sceptres, and emblems of Osiris, usually executed in faience, are placed beside the dead person in order that he may wear them when he becomes one with Osiris, and therefore a king. The scarab, fashioned in the likeness of a scarabæus beetle, symbolised resurrection. The dad symbolised the human skeleton, and, therefore, perhaps, the dead and dismembered Osiris. It has an influence on the restoration of the deceased. The uza, or eye, signifies the health necessary to the dead man's soul. The so-called " palettes" at one time supposed to have been employed for the mixing of paint, are now known to have been amulets inscribed with words of power placed on the breasts of the dead in neolithic times. The amulet of the menat was worn, or held, with the sistrum by gods, kings, and priests, and was supposed to bring joy and health to the wearer. It represented the vigour of the two sexes. Spells . The simplest type of spell in use in Egypt, was that in which the exorcist threatens the evil principle, or assures it that he can injure it. Generally, however, the magician requests the assistance of the gods, or he may pretend to that which he desires to exorcise that he is a god. Invocations, when written, were usually accompanied by a note to the effect that the formula had once been employed successfully by a god-perhaps by a deified priest. An incomprehensible and mysterious jargon was employed, which was supposed to conceal the name of a certain deity who was thus compelled to do the will of the sorcerer. These gods were almost always those of foreign nations, and the invocations themselves appear to be attempts at various foreign idioms, employed, perhaps, as sounding more mysterious than the native speech. Great stress was laid upon the proper pronunciation of these names, and failure in all cases was held to lie at the door of mis-pronunciation. The Book of the Dead (q.v.) contains many such words of power," and these were intended to assist the journey of the dead in the underworld of Amenti. It was believed that all supernatural beings, good and evil, possessed hidden names, which if a man knew, he could compel them to do his will. The name, indeed, was as much part of a man as his body or soul. The traveller through Amenti must tell not only the divine gods their names, but must prove that he knew the names of a number of the supposedly inanimate objects in the dreary Egyptian Hades, if he desired to make any progress. (See Gnostics and Names Magical.) 66 Magical Books. - Many magical books existed in Egypt which contained spells and other formulæ for exorcism and necromantic practice. Thus Medical Papyri in the Leipsic collection contain formulæ spoken whilst preparing drugs; the Ebers Papyrus contains such spells; the Harris Magical Papyrus, dating from the New Kingdom, and edited by Chabas, contains spells against crocodiles. The priestly caste, who compiled those necromantic works, was known as Kerheb, or "scribes of the divine writings," and even the sons of Pharaohs did not disdain to enter their ranks. The Ritual of Egyptian Magic. In many instances the ritual of Egyptian magic possesses strong similarities to the ceremonial of other systems and countries. Wax figures were employed in lieu of the bodies of persons to be bewitched or harmed and models of all kinds were utilised in order that the physical force directed against them might react upon the persons or animals it was desired to injure. But the principal rite in which ceremonial magic was employed was the very elaborate one of mummification. As each bandage was laid in its exact position certain words of power were uttered which were supposed to be efficacious in the preservation of the part swathed. After evisceration, the priest uttered an invocation to the deceased, and then took a vase of liquid containing ten perfumes, with which he smeared the body twice from head to foot, taking especial care to anoint the head thoroughly. The internal organs were then placed on the body, and the backbone immersed in holy oil, supposed to be an emanation from the gods Shu and Seb. Certain precious stones were then laid on the mummy, each of which had its magical significance. Thus crystal lightened his face, and cornelian strengthened his steps. A priest who personified the jackal-headed god, Anubis, then advanced, performed certain symbolical ceremonies on the head of the mummy, and laid certain bandages upon it. After a further anointing with oil the deceased was declared to have "received his head." The mummy's left hand was filled with thirty-six substances used in embalming, symbolic of the thirty-six forms of the god Osiris. The body was then rubbed with holy oil, the toes wrapped in linen, and after an appropriate address the ceremony was completed. Egypt Dreams . The art of procuring dreams and their interpretation was much practised in Egypt. As instances of dreams recorded in Egyptian texts may be quoted those of Thothmes IV. (B.C. 1450) and Nut-Amen, King of Egypt (B.C. 670). The Egyptian magician procured dreams for his clients by drawing magical pictures and the recitation of magical words. The following formulæ for producing a dream is taken from British Museum Papyrus, No. 122, lines 64 ff. and 359 ff. 66 To obtain a vision from the god Bes: Make a drawing of Besa, as shewn below, on your left hand, and envelope your hand in a strip of black cloth that has been consecrated to Isis and lie down to sleep without speaking a word, even in answer to a question. Wind the remainder of the cloth round your neck. The ink with which you write must be composed of the blood of a cow, the blood of a white dove, fresh frankincense, myrrh, black writing ink, cinnabar, mulberry juice, rain-water, and the juice of wormwood and vetch. With this write your petition before the setting sun, saying, 'Send the truthful seer out of the holy shrine, I beseech thee, Lampsuer, Sumarta, Baribas, Dardalam, Iorlex: O Lord send the sacred deity Anuth, Anuth, Salbana, Chambré, Breith, now, now, quickly, quickly. Come in this very night.'" "To procure dreams : Take a clean linen bag and write upon it the the names given below. Fold it up and make it into a lamp-wick, and set it alight, pouring pure oil over it. The word to be written is this: 'Armiuth, Lailamchouch, Arsenophrephren, Phtha, Archentechtha.' Then in the evening, when you are going to bed, which you must do without touching food (or, pure from all defilement), do thus: Approach the lamp and repeat seven times the formula given below: then extinguish it and lie down to sleep. The formula is this: Sachmu... epaema Ligotereench: the Aeon, the Thunderer, Thou that hast swallowed the snake and dost exhaust the moon, and dost raise up the orb of the sun in his season, Chthetho is the name; I require, O lords of the gods, Seth, Chreps, give me the information that I desire.'" Medical Magic. Magic played a great part in Egyptian medicine. On this point Weidemann says: "The Egyptians were not great physicians: their methods were purely empirical and their remedies of very doubtful value, but the riskiness of their practice arose chiefly from their utter inability to diagnose because of their ignorance of anatomy. That the popular respect for the human body was great we may gather from the fact that the Paraskhistai who opened the body for embalmment were persecuted and stoned as having committed a sinful although necessary deed. The prescribed operations in preparing a body for embalmment were never departed from, and taught but little anatomy, so that until Greek times the Egyptians had only the most imperfect and inaccurate ideas of the human organism. They understood nothing about most internal diseases, and especially nothing about diseases of the brain, never suspecting them to be the result of organic changes, but assuming them to be caused by demons who had entered into the sick. Under these circumstances medicines might be used to cause the disappearance of the symptoms, but the cure was the expulsion of the demon. Hence the Egyptian physician must also practise magic. 66 According to late accounts, his functions were comparatively simple, for the human body had been divided into thirty-sıx parts, each presided over by a certain demon, and it sufficed to invoke the demon of the part affected in order to bring about its cure-a view of matters fundamentally Egyptian. In the Book of the Dead we find that different divinities were responsible for the well-being of the bodies of the blessed; thus Nu had charge of the hair, Râ of the face, Hathor of the eyes, Apuat of the ears, Anubis of the lips, while Thoth was guardian of all parts of the body together. This doctrine was subsequently applied to the living body, with the difference that for the great gods named in the Book of the Dead there were substituted as gods of healing the presiding deities of the thirty-six decani, the thirty-six divisions of the Egyptian zodiac, as we learn from the names given to them by Celsus and preserved by Origen. In earlier times it was not so easy to be determined which god was to be invoked, for the selection depended not only on the part affected but also on the illness and symptoms and remedies to be used, etc. " Several Egyptian medical papyri which have come down to us contain formulas to be spoken against the demons of disease as well as prescriptions for the remedies to be used in specified cases of illness. In papyri of older date these conjurations are comparatively rare, but the further the art of medicine advanced, or rather receded, the more numerous they became." " It was not always enough to speak the formulas once; even their repeated recitation might not be successful, and in that case recourse must be had to other expedients : secret passes were made, various rites were performed, the formulas were written upon papyrus, which the sick person had to swallow, etc., etc. But amulets were in general found to be most efficacious, and the personal intervention of a god called up, if necessary, by prayers or sorcery." Magical Figures. As has been said the Egyptians believed that it was possible to transmit to the figure of any person or animal the soul of the being which it represented. In the Westcar Papyrus we read how a soldier who had fallen in love with a governor's wife was swallowed by a crocodile when bathing, the saurian being a magical replica of a waxen one made by the lady's husband. In the official account of a conspiracy against Rameses III. (ca B.C. 1200) the conspirators obtained access to a magical papyrus in the royal library and employed its instructions against the king with disastrous effects to themselves. These, too, made waxen figures of gods and of the king for the purpose of slaying the latter. Astrology: The Egyptians were fatalists, and believed that a man's destiny was decided before he was born. The people therefore had recourse to astrologers. Says Budge: "In magical papyri we are often told not to perform certain magical ceremonies on such and such days, the idea being that on these days hostile powers will make them to be powerless, and that gods mightier than those to which the petitioner would appeal will be in the ascendant. There have come down to us fortunately, papyri containing copies of the Egyptian calendar, in which each third of every day for three hundred and sixty days of the year is marked lucky or unlucky, and we know from other papyri why certain days were lucky or unlucky, and why others were only partly so." "From the life of Alexander the Great by Pseudo-Callisthenes we learn that the Egyptians were skilled in the art of casting nativities, and that knowing the exact moment of the birth of a man they proceeded to construct his horoscope. Nectanebus employed for the purpose a tablet made of gold and silver and acacia wood, to which were fitted three belts. Upon the outer belt was Zeus with the thirty-six decani surrounding him ; upon the second the twelve signs of the Zodiac were represented; and upon the third the sun and moon. He set the tablet upon a tripod, and then emptied out of a small box upon it models of the seven stars that were in the belts, and put into the middle belt eight precious stones; these he arranged in the places wherein he supposed the planets which they represented would be at the time of the birth Egypt of Olympias, and then told her fortune from them. But the use of the horoscope is much older than the time of Alexander the Great, for to a Greek horoscope in the British Museum is attached 'an introductory letter from some master of the art of astrology to his pupil, named Hermon, urging him to be very exact and careful in his application of the laws which the ancient Egyptians, with their laborious devotion to the art, had discovered and handed down to posterity.' Thus we have good reason for assigning the birthplace of the horoscope to Egypt. In connection with the horoscope must be mentioned the 66 sphere" or "table" of Democritus as a means of making predictions as to life and death. In a magical papyrus we are told to 'ascertain in what month the sick man took to his bed, and the name he received at his birth. Calculate the course of the moon, and see how many periods of thirty days have elapsed; then note in the table the number of days left over, and if the number comes in the upper part of the table, he will live, but if in the lower part he will die.'" Ghosts. The conception that the ka or double of man wandered about after death, greatly assisted the Egyptian belief in ghosts. "According to them a man consisted of a physical body, a shadow, a double, a soul, a heart, a spirit called the khu, a power, a name, and a spiritual body. When the body died the shadow departed from it, and could only be brought back to it by the performance of a mystical ceremony; the double lived in the tomb with the body, and was there visited by the soul whose habitation was in heaven. The soul was, from one aspect, a material thing, and like the ka, or double, was believed to partake of the funeral offerings which were brought to the tomb; one of the chief objects of sepulchral offerings of meat and drink was to keep the double in the tomb and to do away with the necessity of its wandering about outside the tomb in search of food. It is clear from many texts that, unless the double was supplied with sufficient food, it would wander forth from the tomb and eat any kind of offal and drink any kind of dirty water which it might find in its path. But besides the shadow, and the double, and the soul, the spirit of the deceased, which usually had its abode in heaven, was sometimes to be found in the tomb. There is, however, good reason for stating that the immortal part of man which lived in the tomb and had its special abode in the statue of the deceased was the 'double.' This is proved by the fact that a special part of the tomb was reserved for the ka, or double, which was called the house of the ka,' and that a priest, called the 'priest of the ka,' was specially appointed to minister therein." Esoteric Knowledge of the Priesthood. The esoteric knowledge of the Egyptian priesthood is now believed to have been of the description with which the Indian medicine man is credited plus a philosophy akin to that of ancient India. Says Davenport Adams : 66 To impose upon the common people, the priesthood professed to lead lives of peculiar sanctity. They despised the outer senses, as sources of evil and temptation. They kept themselves apart from the profanium vulgus, 'and,' says Iamblicus, 'occupied themselves only with the knowledge of God, of themselves, and of wisdom; they desired. no vain honours in their sacred practice, and never yielded to the influence of the imagination.' Therefore they formed a world within a world, fenced round by a singular awe and wonder, apparently abstracted from the things of earth, and devoted to the constant contemplation of divine mysteries. They admitted few strangers into their order, and wrapt up their doctrines in a hieroglyphical language, which was only intelligible to the initiated. To these various precautions was added the solemnity of a terrible Set eeeer Divining Cup Amulets of Hathor The scribe Ani passing through the door of the tomb. Outside are his shadow and his soul in the form of a human-headed bird. (From the Papyrus of Ani, plate 18) Cord with seven knots and two labels with magic spells (Berlin, 10826)
Egypt e'jipt, a country of northeastern Africa
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
e'jipt, a country of northeastern Africa. Its Mediterranean coast line stretches from Syria to Tripoli. Egypt, taken in a geographical sense, extends on the east to the Red Sea and reaches westward several days' journey into the Libyan Desert. A vast southern region is bounded by Abyssinia, British East Africa , Congo, and French Sudan. The total area is about 400,000 square miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The physical regions of Egypt proper are three: The valley of the Nile, a desert region on the east, and a desert region on the west. The valley itself is divided into two portions. The southern portion is called upper Egypt. It is a narrow valley 10 to 15 miles wide, comprised between the precipitous borders of elevated table lands. The northern portion, called Lower Egypt, widens into the delta of the Nile, and is bordered by sandy plains of moderate height. About seventy miles above Cairo, there is a pouch-shaped widening of the valley, toward the west; this bay is called Fayoum. It is a considerable extent of fertile land. The native name of Egypt is the Black Country, a term applicable to the soil of the Nile only. A journey up the Nile is said to be rather monotonous except near the southern end of the country, where the hills bordering the valley approach within two or three miles of the river. The cultivated lands of the valley are flat and level. The soil is of a dark brown color. The peasantry live in villages surrounded by palm trees. These villages are built on ancient artificial mounds of earth, heaped up to raise the inhabitants above the water in time of flood. MINERALS. In Upper Egypt building stone is abundant. Limestone, sandstone, and granite are quarried in the bluffs that border the valleys. The granite of Syene on the Nubian frontier is especially celebrated. Its quarries furnished the stone for the statues, colossal figures, and obelisks of Egypt. Cleopatra's Needle in Central Park , New York City, is from this region. Bitumen, salt, sulphur, and alabaster are found in various parts of the country. Gold and iron have also been obtained from southern Egypt and adjacent parts of Nubia. CLIMATE. Cultivated Egypt is practically a rainless country. The atmosphere is clear and dry. Rain sometimes falls near the Mediterranean. In Upper Egypt there are two or three showers a year, sometimes none at all. The country has been well called a "Gift of the Nile," for were it not for the Nile it would be a desert. In winter the climate is delightful. In summer, the days are hot, though tempered by a north wind from the Mediterranean. The spring is the most disagreeable part of the year. At this season sand storms from the deserts are very annoying. Epidemics prevail among the natives, due, it is believed, to filthy, unsanitary habits, rather than to the climate. ANIMALS. Save for the palm groves already mentioned, Egypt is without forests. The wolf, fox, jackal, and hyena find shelter in the bluffs and prowl around the villages at night. The wild ass, several kinds of antelope, and the ostrich are still found in the deserts. The hippopotamus has been exterminated. Even the crocodile, for which Egypt was once famous, is no longer to be found, except in the extreme upper portion of the valley. There are several species of vultures, eagles, hawks, buzzards, and crows. There are numerous song birds. The pelican and the sacred ibis still wade in the waters of the upper Nile. Cats, dogs, fowls, sheep, cattle, asses, horses, and camels are the domestic animals. The river and lagoons are well stocked with fish. An ancient drawing represents an Egyptian prince standing in a hunting boat, flinging a sort of boomerang at some wild ducks as they rise from the papyrus reeds. The papyrus is now very scarce, but waterfowl still winter in Egypt. Pigeons and poultry, including ducks, geese, and turkeys are kept in small yards. In winter quails from Europe invade the country in large numbers. FLOWERS. The rose, jessamine, narcissus, oleander, chrysanthemum, morning glory , geranium, dahlia, sunflower, and violet are but a few of the flowers found in gardens. There are, of course, no wild flowers in the cultivated districts. The famous Egyptian lotus, or blue lily, is the most noticeable flower of the Nile. AGRICULTURE. The water provided by the annual overflow of the Nile is stored in reservoirs and is distributed by extensive irrigation systems. One canal is 4,000 years old. It is 230 feet wide on the bottom and carries a current 18 feet deep. It waters 340,000 acres. Another canal waters 1,000,000 acres. The soil is exceedingly rich. Two or three crops are raised on the same field each year. Wheat, barley, beans, peas, clover, flax, hemp, tobacco, sugar-cane, cotton, and maize, are the chief field crops. Lettuce, watermelons, cucumbers, onions, leeks, garlic, celery, radishes, carrots, turnips, cabbages, tomatoes, the egg fruit, caraway, anise, red pepper, and many other herbs and vegetables are raised in abundance. Grapes, dates, figs, apricots, peaches, oranges, lemons, citrons, bananas, and olives flourish. Indigo and madder are cultivated for dyes. The chief forage plant is clover. POPULATION. The present population of Egypt is variously estimated at from ten to twelve millions. It is possibly a half greater than at any previous period in the history of the country. The native Egyptians have a dark complexion, but belong to the white race. They are chiefly Mohammedans, although a sect, called the Copts, numbering about half a million, clings to a form of Christianity. There is a large admixture of Turks, Arabs, Armenians, and Europeans. The mass of the population is intensely ignorant, and is poverty stricken. Efforts are being made to establish a school in each village. The prevalent language of the country is now Arabic. GOVERNMENT. Egypt is nominally a Turkish possession. The ruler is called the khedive. He is a viceroy of the Turkish sultan, and pays him an annual tribute of $3,492,000. Egypt has borrowed so much money from England, however, and Englishmen have invested so heavily in Egyptian enterprises, that the British government has assumed practical control of Egyptian affairs. The commander-in-chief of the army is an Englishman. Ninety-eight British officers serve with him. The khedive acts under instructions of the British resident minister. The capital is Cairo. HISTORY. The civilization of Egypt is ancient. It was at one time the leading country in the world. When Greece was still a mountainous country, inhabited by rude shepherds, Egypt was a country of palaces, extensive roads, immense temples, and monumental structures, the remains of which still excite the admiration of the traveler. Grecian art owes much to Egypt. There was a close relationship as well between the civilization of the Euphrates Valley and that of the Nile. In early days the Egyptians must have been an inventive people. From their hieroglyphic writings, pictures on monuments, and other sources of information, we learn that, long before Europe emerged from savagery, the Egyptians were familiar with many tools, such as the saw, adz, and chisel. Their physicians possessed forceps, syringes, and implements like a razor. Their artisans were familiar with the blowpipe and the blacksmith's bellows. The use of the lever, of the balance for weighing, and of the siphon for conveying liquids, was understood. Specimens of beautiful glazed pottery have been found. The warriors of the early Egyptian kings had helmets, shields, spears, maces, battleaxes, hatchets, and swords. They handled the bow skillfully. They conducted sieges and scaled walls by means of ladders. The Egyptian farmer was familiar with the use of the plow and hoe. He cut his grain with a sickle. Methods of retting flax were practiced. The fiber was made into threads and rope, and spun into cloth on a loom. Painting and sculpture were highly developed. It would be difficult to name an art or craft in which the Egyptians in their day were not leaders. The use of many articles regarded as particularly modern was not unknown to the ancient Egyptian. We even find a hint of the modern safety bicycle on an ancient Egyptian monument. O, Commander of the Faithful, Egypt is a compound of black earth and green plants between a pulverized mountain and a red sand. Along the valley descends a river on which the blessing of the Most High reposes both in the evening and the morning, and which rises and falls with the revolutions of the sun and moon. According to the vicissitudes of the seasons, the face of the country is covered with a silver wave, a verdant emerald, and the deep yellow of a golden harvest.--Report of a Moslem Commander to the Caliph. The reader is referred to separate articles on ALEXANDRIA; CAIRO; COPTS; HIEROGLYPHICS; IBIS; KARNAK; MUMMY; NILE; OBELISK; PAPYRUS; PYRAMID; SPHINX; SUEZ CANAL ; THEBES; SCULPTURE; TEMPLE; MOHAMMED; ARCHITECTURE, etc. STATISTICS. The following statistics are the latest to be had from trustworthy sources. Land area, square miles 400,000 Nile valley and delta 12,013 Population (1907) 11,287,395 Cairo 654,476 Alexandria 332,246 Port Said 49,884 Assiut 39,442 Damietta 29,354 Fayoum 37,320 Number of cities and provinces 21 Members of legislative council 30 Annual expenditure $70,000,000 Salary of khedive $500,000 Bonded indebtedness $475,000,000 Acres under plow 5,614,000 Number of landowners 1,230,000 Corn, acres 1,300,000 Wheat, acres 1,218,000 Sugar-cane, acres 41,000 Exports $100,000,000 Domestic Animals-- Horses 80,000 Mules 10,000 Asses 120,000 Cattle 350,000 Buffaloes 300,000 Camels 40,000 Acres of cotton 1,603,000 Pounds of export cotton 723,400,000 Miles of railway owned by state 1,443 Postoffice savings bank deposits (1907) $1,951,000 Elementary schools (1907) 5,000 Pupils enrolled 284,000 Percentage of adult illiteracy 94 Number postoffices (1907) 1,279 Letters and postcards 24,000,000
Egypt MAGICAL PICTURES AND OBJECTS [ face p
An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1920)
MAGICAL PICTURES AND OBJECTS [ face p. 136 oath, whose breach was invariably punished with death." "The Egyptian priests preserved the remaining relics of the former wisdom of nature. These were not imparted as the sciences are, in our age, but to all appearances they were neither learned nor taught; but as a reflection of the old revelations of nature, the perception must arise like an inspiration in the scholar's mind. From this cause appear to have arisen those numerous preparations and purifications the severity of which deterred many from initiation into the Egyptian priesthood; in fact, not infrequently resulted in the scholar's death. Long fasting, and the greatest abstinence, appear to have been particularly necessary: besides this, the body was rendered insensible through great exertions, and even through voluntarily inflicted pain, and therefore open to the influence of the mind. The imagination was excited by representations of the mysteries; and the inner sense was more impressed by the whole than-as is the case with us-instructed by an explanation of simple facts. In this manner the dead body of science was not given over to the initiated, and left to chance whether it would become animated or not, but the living soul of wisdom was breathed into them. "From this fact, that the contents of the mysteries were rather revealed than taught-were received more from inward inspiration and mental intoxication, than outwardly through endless teaching, it was necessary to conceal them from the mass of the people. So says Schubert, dealing with the same subject: "The way to every innovation was closed, and outward knowledge and science could certainly not rise to a high degree of external perfection; but that rude sensuality, inclination for change and variety, was suppressed as the chief source of all bodily and spiritual vices, is clear, as well as that here, as in India , an ascetic and contemplative life was recommended. "They imparted their secret and divine sciences to no one who did not belong to their caste, and it was long impossible for foreigners to learn anything; it was only in later times that a few strangers were permitted to enter the initiation after many severe preparations and trials. Besides this, their functions were hereditary, and the son followed the footsteps of his father." 66 Concerning that which passed within the temples, and of the manner in which the sick were treated, we have but fragmentary accounts; for to the uninitiated the entrance was forbidden, and the initiated kept their vows. Even the Greeks, who were admitted to the temples, have been silent concerning the secrets, and have only here and there betrayed portions. Jablonski says, 'that but few chosen priests were admitted into the sanctum, and that admission was scarcely ever permitted to strangers even under the severest regulations.''" 66 Dealing with the subject of hypnotism in Egypt, Montfauçon says: Magnetism was daily practised in the temples of Isis, of Osiris, and Serapis. In these temples the priests treated the sick and cured them, either by magnetic manipulation, or by other means producing somnambulism." Presenting a painting of a mesmeric scene, he says: Before a bed or table, on which lie the sick, stands a person in a brown garment, and with open eyes, and the dog's head of Anubis. His countenance is turned towards the sick person; his left hand is placed on the breast, and the right is raised over the head of his patient, quite in the position of a magnetiser. 66
What Has Changed in the Last Century
When Collier's wrote this in 1921 Egypt was a British protectorate whose population stood at 12.75 million and whose seasons were still marked by the annual "high Nile" flood. Nominal independence came the next year, in 1922; the monarchy fell in 1952, Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal in 1956, and the Aswan High Dam, completed in 1970, ended the natural inundation altogether, replacing it with a controlled release from Lake Nasser. The Nubian stretch described here between Assuan and Wady Halfa is now under that reservoir, along with temples such as Abu Simbel, which were cut apart and raised to higher ground in the 1960s. Egypt's population has passed 100 million, still crowded onto the same narrow strip of valley and delta, and Greater Cairo, a city of 790,939 in the 1917 census, now holds over twenty million.
Written for this edition, 2026.